Theoretical physics: the origin of space and time. Physical space as the antipode of matter What is the problem with the dark matter hypothesis

We have already considered that there is no time as a physical entity (What is time? (an attempt at a definition)fornit.ru/17952). There are only physical processes with causes and effects. The ratio of the number of certain events in the process under study to the number of standard events in the standard process that occurred between two “nows” determines the measured value, which is called time.

What about space?

What is space, not in the sense of a mathematical abstraction, but the physical space that surrounds us?

There are many articles on the Internet with discussions on this topic, and theories with statements. Physical properties are attributed to space, it is replaced by ether, physical vacuum, put in opposition to matter, united with time, turning it into a space-time continuum. But everyone agrees on one thing - space is filled with matter and is infinite.
If we agree with this statement, we have to agree that space is not material.

AT hypotheses "General Theory of Space" (fornit.ru/17928) space is considered inseparably from matter, and is considered a property of matter.
Matter in the modern sense also does not have a clear definition, but by general agreement, matter is considered to be everything that exists independently of consciousness, objectively.
Considering space as a property of matter, we can talk about its materiality. But it does not exist in itself, but is a property of that which exists objectively.
How can such a representation be connected with the available observational and sensory facts?
In what "property" is the movement of galaxies and spacecraft observed?

AT hypotheses e "General Theory of Space" all matter has this property. Matter itself is subdivided into having mass (also a property) and massless.
In physics, to describe the properties of matter, the concept of a material point is used, which can have a mass, or denotes a certain point in space.
But is such an abstraction as a material point justified in relation to matter?
Everything that exists objectively has some kind of device. Speaking of planets or particles, one speaks of their inherent external fields and internal structure. And this applies to all material objects without exception.
In this case, taking some abstract form for matter, you can endow it with an outer sphere, a boundary surface and an inner sphere. Let's call this shape an object.
What does the boundary sphere limit? It is located on the border of the external and internal space of the object.

Electrons are represented as objects having an electric charge, which is detected by the interaction of the electric field of this electron with other objects. The planets are presented as objects that have a mass (gravitational charge) that is detected by the interaction of the gravitational field with other objects.

What is an electric and gravitational field?
These fields do not exist by themselves, but are properties of matter.
Why not then say that the electric and gravitational fields are parameters of the object's physical space?
Gravitational properties are observed on the scale of the entire Universe, and electrical properties in some limited areas, since there are two types of electric charges, the action of which is compensated at large distances from them.
One may ask the question, why does the gravitational charge have only a positive value?
"General theory of space” gives such an answer. The gravitational charge can have a negative value, but in the conditions of our Universe it cannot exist. This is due to the general gravitational potential of all matter in the universe. It turns out that it is under such conditions that gravitational charges of the same name begin to attract, and opposite ones repel. By some chance, there were a few more positive ones, and the negative ones left the observable space of the Universe.

And what is this observable space?
And this is the sum of all individual spaces of the objects of the Universe, which have a positive gravitational parameter.
The space of an object, as its property, has a number of parameters, which include electrical and gravitational parameters.
The interaction of objects in this representation is associated with the pressure that a heterogeneous space can exert on an object that has a certain cross-sectional area. Pay attention to the fact that pressure cannot be exerted on a material point.
Thus, there is no independent infinite space. There is as much space as there is matter in the universe.
Objectively, there are no points (points) in space. To determine the properties of space, one can consider a certain small area. A trial body (trial object) makes it possible to evaluate its interaction with the surrounding (total) space. Interaction occurs between the outer space of one object and the inner space of another. If the objects have approximately equal parameters, then to calculate the interaction, it is necessary to consider the internal and external spaces of both objects.
The division into external and internal is rather conditional. The outer space for the objects of the Universe is at the same time the inner space of the entire visible Universe as an object. The solar system can be viewed as having an outer space beyond the discernible influence of the individual planets. External and internal space are abstractions that allow you to get closer to the real structure of the world than infinite space and material points.
We can now give a definition of physical space.

Space is a property of material objects that determines their interaction.

This definition eliminates the need to define the term field. Everything that could be said about the field can be said about space (more precisely, about its parameters).
Oddly enough, such a representation does not complicate the mathematics that describes reality, and sometimes it simplifies it. The movement and coordinates of objects are always determined in the context of the interaction of an existing or potential one.

There is no need to compress or distort physical space. All processes in it and with it are described by its parameters.

"... the requirement to reduce the metric and inertial fields to physical causes is still not insistent enough ... Future generations, however, will find this undemanding incomprehensible."
A. Einstein, REMARK TO THE WORK OF FRANZ SELETI “TO THE COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEM” 1922

It's time, I think, more demanding to reduce these phenomena to physical causes :)

In 1921, in the article "Geometry and Experience" A. Einstein wrote:

“The gravitational field has such properties as if, in addition to weighty masses, it was created by a mass density uniformly distributed in space, which has a negative sign. Since this fictitious mass is very small, it can only be noticed in the case of very large engraving systems.”

Moreover, the most natural quantitative ratio between components with opposite properties is the equality of the absolute values of the densities. Then the average density of the Universe will be equal to zero and there will be no problem about the origin and quantity of matter. In modern physics, the problem of substantiating the existence of matter in particular, and the universe as a whole, is not considered at all. Secondly, if the propagation of light is associated with the propagation of perturbations in a fictitious mass, then it is obvious that the limited speed of light is not a property of the geometry of space, but a characteristic of a fictitious mass. And since in any physical medium the propagation of perturbations, which is described by wave equations, weakly depends on the flow that satisfies the equations of motion, the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiments on the detection of the “aether wind” is obvious.

The flow of "ether" cannot significantly change the nature and speed of propagation of density waves in it. Thirdly, the flow of any medium (for example, air, water) exerts pressure on material bodies proportional to the density. In the case when the density of the medium is negative, this pressure turns into a force directed against the flow. Therefore, if a material body can radiate a medium with a negative density, then it will have a gravitational effect on the surrounding bodies. Thus, the idea of a fictitious mass allows a more natural explanation of some known physical phenomena and experiments. In order to cover all phenomena, it is obviously necessary to build a model of the Universe with a fictitious mass, which is based on a minimum set of hypotheses.

Such a model is further referred to as the theory of physical space (PTS). It is clear that in this theory we are no longer talking about a fictitious mass, but about a real environment that not only fills, but constitutes the space around us. The model of physical space is based on two complementary hypotheses, the meaning of which is to ensure the formation and preservation of matter without involving uncertain energy and third forces. Symmetry Hypothesis: There are only two media in space, one of which has a positive density and is called matter, and the other has a negative density and is called physical space. These media consist of indivisible particles that form and disappear (annihilate) in pairs.

In the present model, where matter exists only on the waves of physical space, the void is understood as a limited area in space where there is neither matter nor physical space. The void is unstable in the sense that on its surface, bordering on the surrounding physical space, there is always a wave process of formation of matter and physical space. Those. emptiness constantly “burns out” like any other fuel and is .

The formation of emptiness is associated with the annihilation of matter and physical space, i.e. with the absorption of energy, which passes into the potential energy of the void. Moreover, the larger the annihilating masses, the larger the resulting void volume. A typical example of emptiness is ball lightning, which is formed during collisions of differently charged particles and gradually “burns out” over the surface.

This process occurs more intensively in ordinary lightning. Another way the void is formed is the gravitational collapse of stars. In this case, matter degenerates and breaks up into indivisible particles as a result of critical pressure, i.e. pressure at which matter loses its ability to move and disintegrates. When annihilated with the inner space, a void is formed. As soon as the void reaches the surface of the star, the reverse process of the formation of matter and space starts, which is observed as a supernova explosion. The theoretical astrophysical object closest to the declared emptiness is a white hole, into which, by definition, nothing can penetrate. Israeli astronomer Alon Retter believes that white holes, having arisen, immediately disintegrate, the process resembles the Big Bang (Big Bang), which is why it is called, by analogy, the Small Bang (Small Bang).

The difference in the presentation of the theory of physical space lies in the fact that initially there is a process of absorption of matter in a certain region of space, following the example of a black hole, which then transforms into a white hole and reproduces matter in the same amount as was absorbed. Only it will be other stars and other galaxies. It follows from the hypotheses of the model that matter in all its manifestations exists in physical space. Free and forced oscillations, radiation and the flow of physical space explain such phenomena as light, atom, magnetism, inertia, gravity, "hidden" mass, etc. On this occasion, Einstein wrote that

“the requirement to reduce phenomena to physical causes is not yet sufficiently demanding, and this undemandingness will seem incomprehensible to future generations.”

Applying the theory of physical space to the interpretation of various phenomena of the real world is an exciting activity, like everything new. But in the limited scope of the publication, this can only be demonstrated by examples in which various properties of the physical space are manifested.

Microworld

From the wave nature of the process of “burning” of emptiness, when elementary particles are simultaneously formed on the surface and waves of fluctuations in the density of physical space are excited, it follows that the known corpuscular-wave nature of elementary particles is not a choice between a wave and a particle, but represents the movement of particles of one medium ( matter) on the waves of another medium (physical space). Moreover, the wavelength quantitatively characterizes the elementary particle, since it limits its size. Different wavelengths in space correspond to different particles. The propagation of elementary particles in space at the speed of light means that the speed of light is the speed of propagation of perturbations in physical space.

Waves in physical space can be excited in other ways. For example, the rotation of material bodies, but this does not lead to the propagation of radiation, because. there is no source of radiation or the process of "burning" of the void. The nature of forced oscillations of physical space is complex and diverse. Radial, tangential, spiral waves and their superimpositions, vortices, etc. are possible here. The only question is, what real physical process do these phenomena correspond to? It is obvious that the forced oscillations of the physical space can be associated with the magnetic field (radial waves), the structure of the atom (superposition of spiral waves), electric charges (vortices), etc. Without going into details, it can be argued that various phenomena of the microcosm harmoniously fit into the model of the Universe with physical space.

World

Of all the phenomena of the real world, gravity still remains the most mysterious. The question of why a thrown stone falls to the ground has occupied mankind throughout its existence and has not yet had an unequivocal answer. Gravity is also the touchstone for various alternative models of the universe, which have never been lacking. And, despite the fact that many physical phenomena in these models become simpler and more understandable, the authors deliberately bypass the interpretation of gravity.

This fully applies to modern physics. The explanation of gravity by the influence of the flow of physical space is not trivial, but can be consistently implemented based on the properties of the microworld. First, why do all material bodies radiate physical space? Radiation of matter by material bodies is known, because almost all information about material bodies is based on registration of matter radiation.

But if in the model the formation of matter and physical space occurs in equal amounts, then it is obvious that the bodies radiate the physical space as well. By the way, the resulting excess physical space also clarifies the very fact of the expansion of the Universe. Secondly, if we associate the magnitude of gravity with the speed of the flow of physical space, then it is necessary to explain why it does not depend on the speed of the body itself? Or why bodies can move at a constant speed relative to physical space, i.e. by inertia?

Indeed, when a body moving at a constant speed interacts with any external flow, including negative density, it must change its speed. But the flow of physical space is not purely external in relation to the body, because physical space is radiated by the body itself. The magnitude and direction of this 6 radiation change the nature of the movement. In order to move a body at rest, it is necessary to expend energy.

In this case, energy is spent on changing the direction of the flow of physical space inside the body. Those. own allocation of physical space is a driving reactive force for the body, which neutralizes the impact of the external flow when moving by inertia. The very change in the direction of the flow of physical space in the body can occur as a result of a change in the internal structure of atoms, its symmetry, for example, the ellipticity of the orbits of electrons.

Thus, the inertial motion of the body occurs with a fixed internal structure of its atoms, and under the influence of external forces, the structure and speed change relative to the surrounding antimatter. Therefore, changing the speed of the external flow is also equivalent to the application of an external force. This corollary solves the problem of the equivalence of the gravitational and inertial masses of the body. It is known that the speed of the physical space from the central source decreases in proportion to the square of the distance, i.e. just like the force of attraction. And what is called the gravitational field turns out to be a field of velocities of the flow of physical space from a variety of sources, which are stars, planets and other material bodies.

Macroworld

The influence of physical space on the motion of matter has three significantly different levels, which also have a different mathematical description. At the level of elementary particles, this influence is described by wave equations for the physical space, since the movement of elementary particles is accompanied by the propagation of density waves in the physical space. Newton's mechanics, supplemented by gravitational forces equivalent to the velocity field of the flow of physical space, is an approximate method for studying the motion of material bodies in physical space.

The third level of influence of physical space on the motion of matter differs in that here the distances between galaxies are already such that the determining role in their motion belongs to the flow of an ideal medium, which is physical space. The direction of the gravitational force at each point in space coincides with the direction of the flow of physical space, which does not correspond to the provisions of classical mechanics that the gravitational force is always directed towards the attracting center. The deviation of the flow of physical space from the radial direction occurs due to the rotation of the source and, in particular, has a noticeable effect on the motion of matter around stars and galactic nuclei.

However, these material formations have a different internal structure, as a result, the physical space of the galaxy core rotates with it and the deviation of the flow of physical space from the radial increases with distance from the center, and for a star, on the contrary, with approaching the surface, the physical space is entrained by the rotating mass of matter. Rotation of physical space together with the core of the galaxy. This is the reason for the undamped motion of matter when moving away from the core of the galaxy, which is interpreted in modern cosmology as the influence of the “hidden mass”, and the accelerated motion of matter when approaching the surface of a star, an example of which is the displacement of the perihelions of the planets of the solar system.

What is the problem with the dark matter hypothesis?

The thesis of the existence of dark matter is based on the discrepancy between observed data and theoretical curves from Kepler's equations of motion. But what does the discrepancy between the curves describing the same physical process mean if this discrepancy consists in the tendency of the experimental curves not to zero, but to some other asymptote, maybe not even horizontal. This may mean not only the existence of dark matter, but also the lack of correspondence between the physical process and the equations with which we are trying to describe it.

The problem is that we consider the motion of matter around the galaxy in a single geometric space from the center of the galaxy's nucleus to infinity, while the physical space of the galaxy rotates with it relative to the rest of the surrounding space. This circumstance is not taken into account in any way in the equations of motion used, which leads to contradictions, for the explanation of which one has to introduce mythical dark matter. Due to the negative density, the physical space is constantly under conditions of uniform compression. In any limited volume, this is impossible, because the pressure and density at the boundary are equal to zero. Therefore, it can be argued that in the theory of physical space the Universe is unlimited. Moreover, the limitedness of the Universe would mean that its boundary is emptiness, and along the entire boundary there is a continuous process of formation of matter and physical space, i.e. the radiation from the boundary would far outweigh the radiation from all the matter inside the universe.

An alternative to the Big Bang or the cause of expansion in the theory of physical space are local annihilations of large volumes of matter and physical space, in particular, explosions of supernovae. Given that the volume of the resulting void is much less than the equivalent volume of physical space, explosions cause local compression of the Universe. Thus, the slow and general expansion of the Universe is accompanied by fast local contractions. The limited volume of emptiness formed in this case, as a result of division into many smaller emptiness and their “burning”, again turns into a galaxy. It is known that supernova explosions are accompanied by the formation of stellar systems and nebulae. Experimentally, the relationship between supernova explosions and space contractions has not been investigated, perhaps for the reason that there is no theory that would predict such a relationship. But the strange trajectories of movement of huge masses, which do not fit into the paradigm of the accelerated expansion of the Universe, can be explained, among other things, by local compressions of space.

"The collision of the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), the two largest galaxies in the Local Group, is expected to occur in about four billion years."

In modern cosmology, the possibility of this collision is attributed to the gravitational interaction. This is a very strange assumption, given that more than 20 galaxies of the local group are much closer to us (than M31) and do not threaten to collide. One of the problems of modern physics is the dubiousness of explaining the formation of stars, planets, etc. Big bang, while protomatter evenly distributed in space is in a state of expansion, i.e. decrease in density and attraction between particles, which in no way can contribute to their unification. In addition, the formation of stars and planets in different regions of the Universe is also taking place at the present time, when the current state of the cosmos differs significantly from the period of star formation after the Big Bang.

In the theory of physical space, matter is formed on the surface of a limited volume of emptiness and is in a state of constant attraction to its center. Two stages can be distinguished in this process: the first is the division of the initial void formed as a result of large-scale annihilation, when the “fragments” move away from each other under the action of repulsive forces by the resulting physical space. And the second is the transformation of “fragments” into spheres by separating the protruding parts. Since these stages are separated in time, there is already a surface layer of matter on the “fragments”, and not only repulsive forces act on the separating parts, but also forces of attraction to the original nucleus, which turn them into natural satellites. In the real world, these stages are associated with the formation of a galactic star system (the first stage) and the formation of planetary systems (the second stage). Report of Academician V.A. Ambartsumyan at the General Meeting of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR when he was awarded the medal to them. M.V. Lomonosov.

Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1972, No. 5:

“There was nothing left to do but, discarding the unfounded, preconceived ideas about the condensation of scattered matter into stars, simply extrapolating the observational data, put forward a diametrically opposite hypothesis that stars arise from dense, rather superdense matter, by separation (fragmentation ) of massive prestellar bodies into separate pieces.”

Conclusion

Obviously, the introduction of physical space radically changes the idea of the Universe. Meanwhile, in the special and popular science literature, the modern foundations of physics are not questioned. The statement that matter is infinite "both in breadth and depth" is a weighty argument in favor of the infinity of the process of cognition. But if we assume that the theory of physical space is correct, then it is obvious that on large scales the Universe is quasi-periodic, i.e. nothing new can be seen, and when small volumes are released, matter simply disappears. The methodological problem of modern physics, as follows from the model of physical space, is that the Universe on a large scale is not the subject of the dynamics of material bodies (or points) in empty space, but should be studied by the methods of flow mechanics of an ideal continuous medium, which is the physical space , with discrete inclusions of material bodies. Approval of the theory of physical space is possible only when it becomes a subject of discussion in scientific circles, and its advantages will be supported by significant results in the development of white spots, which are many in the surrounding world.

It should be noted that the theory of physical space does not contradict any known data of experimental physics, it consistently and without singularities describes different levels of matter organization. From all other models of the Universe, including the Big Bang model, the theory of physical space is distinguished by its simplicity, which is inherent in nature and is one of the criteria for truth. The inevitability of such a simplification is suggested by the eminent English physicist Stephen Hawking when he writes: “If we really discover a complete theory, then in time its basic principles will be understandable to everyone, and not just to a few specialists.”

The ontological status of space and time has become the subject of philosophical and scientific analysis in the substantial and relational concepts, which consider the relationship between time, space and matter.

AT substantial(from lat. substantia - what is the basis; essence), the concepts of space and time were interpreted as independent phenomena that exist along with matter and independently of it. Accordingly, the relationship between space, time and matter was presented as a relationship between types of independent substances. This led to the conclusion that the properties of space and time are independent of the nature of the material processes occurring in them.

The ancestor of the substantial approach is considered to be Democritus, who believed that only atoms and emptiness exist, which he identifies with space.

The substantial concept of space and time received its comprehensive development and completion in I. Newton and in classical physics as a whole.

The concepts of space and time developed in classical physics are the result of a theoretical analysis of mechanical motion. Newton clearly distinguished two types of time and space - absolute and relative.

The concepts of "space" and "time" were defined by I. Newton in strict accordance with the methodological setting that was adopted by the emerging experimental science of the New Age, namely, the knowledge of the essence (laws of nature) through phenomena. He clearly distinguished two types of time and space - absolute and relative, and gave them the following definitions.

"Absolute, true, mathematical time in itself and in its essence, without any relation to anything external, flows evenly and is otherwise called duration.

Relative, apparent, or ordinary, time there is either an exact or changeable, comprehended by the senses, external measure of duration, used in everyday life instead of true mathematical time, such as: hour, day, month, year.

Absolute space in its essence, regardless of anything external, it always remains the same and motionless.

Relative space there is a measure or some limited movable part, which is determined by our senses according to its position relative to certain bodies, and which in everyday life is taken for an immovable space.

What caused this distinction?

First of all, it is connected with the peculiarities of the theoretical and empirical levels of cognition of space and time.

At the empirical level, space and time appear as relative, i.e. associated with specific physical processes and their perception at the level of feelings.

At the theoretical level, absolute space and time are idealized objects, which have only one characteristic: for time - to be "pure duration", and for space to be "pure extension".

Newton's concepts of absolute space and absolute time are the necessary theoretical basis for the laws of motion. Later they were ontologized, i.e. endowed with being outside the theoretical system of mechanics, and began to be regarded as independent entities, independent of each other or of matter.

AT relational(from lat. relationship - relation) concepts of space and time are understood not as independent entities, but as systems of relations formed by interacting material objects. Outside this system of interactions, space and time were considered non-existent. In this concept, space and time act as general forms of coordination of material objects and their states. Accordingly, the dependence of the properties of space and time on the nature of the interaction of material systems was also allowed. In philosophy, the relational concept of time in Antiquity was developed by Aristotle, and in modern times by G. Leibniz, who believed that space and time have exclusively relative character and are: space - in order coexistence of fragments of reality, and time - sequence coexistence of fragments of reality.

In physics, the relational concept of space and time was introduced by special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1916).

A. Einstein in developing his theory, he relied on the ideas of a physicist G. A. Lorentz(1853–1928), physics and mathematics A. Poincare(1854–1912), mathematics G. Minkowski(1864–1909). If in Newton's mechanics space and time were not interconnected and had an absolute character, i.e. were unchanged in different frames of reference, then in the special theory of relativity they become relative (depend on the frame of reference) and interconnected, forming a space-time continuum, or a single four-dimensional space-time.

The general theory of relativity was developed by A. Einstein in 1907–1916. In his theory, he came to the conclusion that real space is non-Euclidean, that in the presence of bodies creating gravitational fields, the quantitative characteristics of space and time become different than in the absence of bodies and the fields they create. Space-time is inhomogeneous, its properties change with the change in the gravitational field. In the general theory of relativity, the gravitational field has taken the place of absolute space, thus "empty space, i.e. space without a field, does not exist, space-time does not exist by itself, but only as a structural property of the field" . In the general theory of relativity, not only space and time separately, but also the space-time continuum is deprived of absoluteness. According to the conclusions of the general theory of relativity, the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the Universe.

In Marxist-Leninist philosophy, it was believed that the main philosophical significance of the theory of relativity is as follows.

1. The theory of relativity excluded from science the concepts of absolute space and absolute time, thereby revealing the inconsistency of the substantial interpretation of space and time as independent forms of being, independent of matter.
2. She showed the dependence of space-time properties on the nature of the movement and interaction of material systems, confirmed the correctness of the interpretation of space and time as the main forms of the existence of matter, the content of which is moving matter.

Considering the philosophical conclusions drawn on the basis of the theory of relativity, the following should be kept in mind. Physics, like any other science, gives a description of the world, relying only on the knowledge and ideas that it can generalize at this stage. Both the substantial and relativistic concepts of space and time, developed in classical mechanics and the theory of relativity, belong to the physical theories of space and time. These scientific theories present conceptual models of space and time, and, as some scientists point out, time in the theory of relativity turned out to be "spatial", its specificity in comparison with space was not disclosed, and the "space-time" of the theory of relativity is an artificially combined continuum .

Scientific disputes around the theory of relativity arose immediately upon its creation and have not subsided to the present.

As indicated in the special scientific literature, at present there is no any convincing experimental verification of the general theory of relativity. Moreover, there is no experimental confirmation of the initial assumptions of the general theory of relativity. For example, it has not yet been confirmed that the speed of propagation of a gravitational perturbation is equal to the speed of light in vacuum. Only an experiment can give an answer to the question, what is the actual speed of propagation of gravity.

Physicists agree that a thorough discussion of the physical foundations of the theory of relativity and the establishment of the limits of its applicability are necessary. Modern assessments of the philosophical conclusions of the theory of relativity are more balanced. From the point of view of recognizing the objectivity of space and time, both of these concepts are equivalent. Despite the differences, these concepts reflect the same real space and time, so philosophy cannot completely exclude any of the models, categorically recognizing it as absolutely unacceptable.

A well-known Russian astrophysicist proposed his own version of the nature of time N. A. Kozyrev(1908–1983). His concept of time is substantive, i.e. time is considered as an independent phenomenon of nature, existing along with matter and physical fields and affecting the objects of our world and the processes taking place in it.

Kozyrev proceeded from the idea that time is not just "pure duration", the distance from one event to another, but something material with physical properties. We can say that time has two types of properties: passive, related to the geometry of our world (they are studied by the theory of relativity), and active, depending on its internal "arrangement". This is the subject of Kozyrev's theory.

At the end of the XX century. a number of versions of understanding the essence of time appeared, a detailed analysis of which can be found in the book by V. V. Kryukov. Analyzing new approaches to the understanding of time and noting their prospects for further development of the problem of time, V.V. activity matter, whatever the nature of that activity. In turn, the activity of matter can be described in two interrelated aspects: topological and metric, those. as a sequence of events and as their duration.

The relationship of time with the internal energy of material bodies is considered in the concept of A. N. Beach

The concepts of space and time developed in classical physics are the result of a theoretical analysis of mechanical motion.

In the main work of I. Newton "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", published in 1687, the basic laws of motion were formulated and the definition of the concepts of space and time was given.

The concepts of "space" and "time" were defined by I. Newton in strict accordance with the methodological setting that was adopted by the emerging experimental science of the New Time, namely, the knowledge of the essence (laws of nature) through phenomena. He wrote: “Time, space, place and movement are well-known concepts. However, it should be noted that these concepts are usually referred to that which is comprehended by our senses. From this come some incorrect judgments, for the elimination of which it is necessary to divide the above concepts into absolute and relative, true and apparent, mathematical and ordinary.

Newton clearly distinguished two types of time and space - absolute and relative, and gave them the following definitions:

« Absolute, true, mathematical time in itself and in its essence, without any relation to anything external, flows evenly and is otherwise called duration.

« Relative, apparent, or ordinary, time there is either an exact or changeable, comprehended by the senses, external measure of duration, used in everyday life instead of true mathematical time, such as: hour, day, month, year.

« Absolute space in its essence, regardless of anything external, it always remains the same and motionless.

« Relative space there is a measure or some limited movable part, which is determined by our senses according to its position relative to certain bodies and which in everyday life is taken for an immovable space.

What caused this distinction?

First of all, it is connected with the peculiarities of the theoretical and empirical levels of cognition of space and time.

At the theoretical level, space and time are idealized objects that have only one characteristic: for time - to be "pure duration", and for space to be "pure extension".

At the empirical level, space and time appear as relative, that is, associated with specific physical processes and their perception at the level of feelings.

Thus, for both time and space, the term "relative" was used in the sense of "a measurable quantity" (comprehended by our senses), and "absolute" in the sense of a "mathematical model".

Why did Newton introduce a distinction between the theoretical and empirical meanings of these concepts?

The relationship between the concepts of absolute and relative time and the need for them is clearly visible from the following explanation.

Time, as is known, can be measured using a uniform periodic process. However, do we know that the processes are uniform? There are obvious logical difficulties in defining such primary concepts.

Another difficulty is related to the fact that two processes that are equally uniform at a given level of accuracy can turn out to be relatively non-uniform with a more accurate measurement. And we are constantly faced with the need to choose an increasingly reliable standard for the uniformity of the course of time.

Absolute time differs in astronomy from ordinary solar time by the equation of time. For natural solar days, taken as equal in the ordinary measurement of time, are in fact unequal to each other. This inequality is corrected by astronomers in order to use more correct time when measuring the movements of celestial bodies. It is possible that there is no such uniform motion (in nature) by which time could be measured with perfect accuracy. All movements can accelerate or slow down, but the course of absolute time cannot change.

Thus, Newton's relative time is measured time, while absolute time is his mathematical model with properties derived from relative time by means of abstraction.

Let's move on to the concept of absolute space.

An important role in the development of natural science was played by the principle of relativity for mechanical motion, first established by G. Galileo and finally formulated in mechanics by Newton.

The father of the principle of relativity is Galileo Galilei, who drew attention to the fact that being in a closed physical system, it is impossible to determine whether this system is at rest or moves uniformly. In the days of Galileo, people dealt mainly with purely mechanical phenomena. In his book Dialogues on Two Systems of the World, Galileo formulated the principle of relativity as follows: for objects captured by uniform motion, this latter, as it were, does not exist, and manifests its effect only on things that do not take part in it.

Galileo's ideas were developed in the mechanics of Newton, who gave the scientific formulation of the principle of relativity: the relative movements of bodies in relation to each other, enclosed in any space, are the same, whether this space is at rest, or moves uniformly and rectilinearly without rotation.

In other words, according to Galileo's principle of relativity, the laws of mechanics are invariant, that is, they remain unchanged under certain transformations relative to inertial frames of reference. The transition from one inertial frame of reference to another is carried out on the basis of the so-called Galilean transformations, where x, y and z mean the coordinates of the body, v is the speed, and t is the time:

The meaning of the principle of relativity lies in the fact that in all inertial frames of reference the laws of classical mechanics have the same mathematical form of writing.

During the creation of mechanics, Newton inevitably faced the question: do inertial systems exist at all? If there is at least one such system, then there can be an innumerable set of them, because any system moving uniformly and rectilinearly relative to the given one will also be inertial. It is quite obvious that there are no inertial frames of reference in nature. On the Earth, the principle of inertia is observed with a sufficient degree of accuracy, and yet the Earth is a non-inertial system: it rotates around the Sun and around its own axis. The system associated with the Sun cannot be inertial either, because the Sun revolves around the center of the Galaxy. But if no real frame of reference is strictly inertial, then do not the basic laws of mechanics turn out to be a fiction?

The search for an answer to this question led to the concept of absolute space. It seemed to be completely immobile, and the frame of reference associated with it was inertial. It was assumed that in relation to absolute space the laws of mechanics are fulfilled in a strict way.

Galileo's transformations reflect the basic properties of space and time as they were understood in classical mechanics.

What are these properties?

1. Space and time exist as independent entities, not connected with each other.

Spatial and temporal coordinates enter the equations in an unequal way. The spatial coordinate in a moving system depends on both the spatial and temporal coordinates in a stationary system (x "= x - vt). The temporal coordinate in a moving system depends only on the time coordinate in a stationary one and is in no way connected with spatial coordinates (t" = t ).

Thus, time is conceived as something completely independent in relation to space.

2. The absoluteness of space and time, that is, the absolute nature of length and time intervals, as well as the absolute nature of the simultaneity of events.

The main metric characteristics of space and time are the distance between two points in space (length) and the distance between two events in time (gap). In Galileo's transformations, the absolute character of length and gap is fixed. With regard to the time interval, this is directly evident from the equation t" \u003d t. Time does not depend on the frame of reference, it is the same in all systems, everywhere and everywhere it flows completely uniformly and equally.

Thus, in all inertial frames of reference, a single continuous absolute time flows uniformly and absolute synchronism is realized (i.e., the simultaneity of events does not depend on the frame of reference, it is absolute), the basis of which could only be long-range instantaneous forces - this role in Newton's system was assigned gravitation (law of universal gravitation). However, the status of long-range action is determined not by the nature of gravity, but by the very substantial nature of space and time within the framework of the mechanistic picture of the world.

In classical Newtonian mechanics, space is introduced through Euclidean three-dimensional geometry. Because of this, it is continuous, ordered, three-dimensional, infinite, limitless - it is a three-dimensional continuum of points.

Newton's concept of space and time and Galileo's principle of relativity, on the basis of which the physical picture of the world was built, dominated until the end of the 19th century.

Etc.

At the level of everyday perception, space is intuitively understood as an arena of action, a common container for the objects under consideration, the essence of a certain system. From a geometric point of view, the term "space" without further specification usually means three-dimensional Euclidean space. However, this term may have a different, broader meaning, up to a metaphorical one. Examples:

steppe space
intercellular space
Personal space
Idea space
multidimensional space

Maths

Examples

Physics

In most branches of physics, the very properties of physical space (dimension, unlimitedness, etc.) do not depend in any way on the presence or absence of material bodies. In the general theory of relativity, it turns out that material bodies modify the properties of space, or rather, space-time, "curve" space-time.

One of the postulates of any physical theory (Newton, general relativity, etc.) is the postulate of the reality of a particular mathematical space (for example, Euclidean in Newton).

Psychology / Linguistics

personal space