Charles was one of four children of Benjamin Babbage and Betsy Plumley. His father was a banker and partner in Praed's & Co, and owner of the Bitton Estate in Teignmouth. At the age of eight he was sent to the village school in Alpington to recover from a fever that was threatening his health.
He studied at King Edward VI Grammar School in South Devon and then at Holmwood Academy in Middlesex under the Reverend Stephen Freeman. The school library instilled in him a love of mathematics.
Babbage left the academy to study with two private teachers - a priest from Cambridge, from whom he did not learn much, and a teacher from Oxford, who taught Babbage classical knowledge. Babbage entered Trinity College, Cambridge in 1810. With his friends, he founded the “Analytical Society”, the “Ghost Club”, which was engaged in the study of paranormal phenomena, and a club called “Tongs” for outpatients. psychiatric hospitals. In 1912, Babbage entered St. Peter's College, Cambridge and, being the best mathematician in the institution, two years later received his degree without passing exams, having managed to win a debate on a controversial topic.
Career
After graduating from college, Babbage worked at various places, but had almost no success. He lectured on astronomy at the Royal Association and in 1816 was appointed a Fellow of the British Scientific Royal Society.
In 1820, with the participation of Babbage, the Astronomical Society was founded, whose members turned to Babbage and his friend Herschel with a request to improve the Nautical Directory by correcting errors in its tables. It was this task that led his thoughts to the idea of automated computing.
In 1822, Babbage presented his report “Remarks on the Application of Machines to the Computation of Mathematical Tables” to the Astronomical Society, supporting the report with the creation of a small difference engine for calculating tables of squares.
In 1823, following the recommendation of the Royal scientific society The British government sponsored the creation of the Difference Engine, an automatic mechanical calculator designed to combine polynomials. His friend and engineer Mark Brunel recommended artisan Joseph Clement to create the device's mechanism.
The difference engine was not built due to disagreements with Clement over construction financing. Second (large) difference engine did not receive the necessary funding from the government and was also not completed. Interestingly, in honor of the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Babbage, between 1989 and 1991, the Large Difference Engine
was constructed.
Together with friend and college colleague John Herschel, Babbage worked in 1825 on the magnetism of Arago's rotation and the resulting question of magnetism. Their work was taken up and expanded upon by Michael Faraday.
In 1826, Babbage acquired the mortality tables of George Barrett, who died without publishing his work. Using Barrett's work as a basis, Babbage published his work entitled "A Comparative Survey of Various Systems of Life Insurance."
He was refused the position of Secretary of the Royal Scientific Society, despite his promises. In 1826, Babbage published a design for a submersible submarine that had enough air for four people for more than two days.
From 1828 to 1839, Babbage held the honorary position of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, and was also elected an honorary foreign member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Babbage twice tried to enter Parliament for the constituency of Finsborough in 1830, but lost both times by the narrowest of margins. His Political Views included the expansion of suffrage and the separation of state and church.
In 1830, Babbage published a polemical book, Reflections on the Decline of Science and Some of the Causes Thereof, which led to the creation of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 1832, Babbage published The Economics of Technology and Manufacture, which was one of the first works on the topic of operations research. "Babbage's principle" implied the division of labor according to skill level. Babbage published his book “Ninth Bridgewater Treatise” with the title “Through the Power, Wisdom and Kindness of God.” He defined his idea of the creation of man as one in which the laws of nature prevail.
Babbage was also involved in cryptology, and at the height of the Crimean War in 1850 he was able to crack the Vigenère cipher, but his work was considered a military secret and therefore did not become public knowledge.
Main works
Babbage created a complex device called the Analytical Engine, which was used for general mathematical calculations and was controlled by punched cards. The device was constantly refined and changed from 1833 until Babbage's death.
In 1838, Babbage invented a track clearer - a metal frame that was attached to a locomotive and removed obstacles from the path. He also developed a dynamometer that recorded the kilometers traveled by a locomotive.
Personal life and legacy
In 1814, Babbage married Georgiana Whitmur. Only four of the couple's eight children, named Benjamin Herschel, Georgiana Whitmore, Dugald Bromhead and Henry Prevost, lived to adulthood.
George Babbage died from renal failure aged 79 and buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, London.
A crater on the Moon and a locomotive are named after Babbage, as well as the Charles Babbage Institute, an information technology center at the University of Minnesota.
Babbage's friend and admirer, Ada Lovelace, is considered the world's first programmer, as she created an algorithm for actions to be performed by a machine.
Charles Babbage was one of four scientists who independently discovered the secret of dendrochronology, or the science of tree rings. But Andrew Ellicott Douglas is considered the father of dendrochronology.
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At the end of 1791, a boy was born into the family of Benjamin and Elizabeth Babbage. At birth he was named Charles. Upon reaching his eighth birthday, Benjamin Babbage sent his son to a private school in Alphington. Charles' poor health did not allow him to attend the usual educational institution for children of his age. As a teacher, the future famous inventor received a priest who could not provide a complete education. Therefore, when Charles Babbage entered college in 1810, he was noticeably behind his peers.
As a child, Charles passed the time by disassembling mechanical toys. Of course, many of us like to find out what this or that toy is made of, but not many subsequently connect their lives with mechanics. Already as a child, Babbage, disassembling toys, tried to understand what made them move. And almost always he managed to do this.
Before entering college, Charles studied at the Academy in Enfield. Thanks to the extensive mathematical library in this educational institution, Babbage fell in love with this science and subsequently began to prove its importance in practice.
Thanks to home-based education, which is exactly how the future inventor of the Analytical Engine studied at Alphington School and the Enfield Academy, Babbage clearly lacked knowledge. His father hired tutors after the academy. One of them was able to give Charles the knowledge he needed to enter college.
In 1810 Babbage entered Trinity College, Cambridge. All free time Charles dedicated self-study mathematics. He studied the works of Lagrange, Leibniz, Euler, Newton and other “great mathematical minds.” In addition, the young man had access to the works of mathematicians of the Paris, Berlin and St. Petersburg academies.
Having quickly overtaken his peers, Babbage became disillusioned with the Cambridge education system. He, together with his college friends Herschel and Peacock, founded the Analytical Society in 1812. With its help, young Britons were able to obtain the works of famous mathematicians of the time in English. In addition, at society meetings it was possible to discuss some issues, argue and learn a lot of things that college teachers did not tell.
Unexpectedly, in 1812, Babbage left Trinity College, citing low level knowledge gained by students. Evil tongues who knew Charles said that he left because most teachers and students considered Babbage the third person in the college after Herschel and Peacock. Undeterred, Babbage went to St. College. Peter's, where two years later he received his bachelor's degree.
In 1815, Charles and his young wife (the year he graduated from St. Peter's College, he married Georgiana Whitmur) moved to the capital of England, where a year later Babbage became a Member of the Royal Society of London.
1827 became a black year for the young scientist. First he buried his father, then his wife and two children. In order not to get bogged down in endless depression, Babbage went on a trip to the British Isles, after which he took up the post of professor of mathematical sciences at Cambridge.
Small difference machine.
The first invention that made Babbage famous was a computing machine, which Charles called the “difference engine.” In 1812, Babbage was busy studying logarithmic tables. His studies tired him so much that the young mathematician fell asleep right at his desk. When a friend woke him up with the question: “What are you doing?”, Charles replied that he wanted to create a machine that could carry out complex mathematical calculations. 
It took the mathematician seven years so that he could form ideas and principles of calculation using a machine. Three years later, in 1822, Babbage began to create his “difference engine.” It consisted of many gears and levers. The difference engine operated with 18-bit numbers, accurate to the eighth decimal place. She could count the value of polynomials of the 7th degree. For his invention, Charles Babbage received a medal from the Astronomical Society.
Large difference machine.
In 1822, to reduce the number of people employed in astronomical, navigational and mathematical calculations, Babbage conceived the creation of a large difference engine. The Royal and Astronomical Society, following a request from the inventor, agreed to provide funds.
From 1822 to 1834, 17,000 pounds from the state were allocated for the manufacture of the large difference engine, and Charles spent another 6,000 from his own pocket. But the low technological base of that time did not allow the creation of a machine during the lifetime of the inventor.
Charles Babbage left behind drawings of a large difference engine, which was supposed to consist of 25 thousand parts and weigh 14 tons. The Swiss inventor Scheutz in 1854 created several difference engines based on Babbage's drawings. 
Analytical Engine - prototype of the first computer
Babbage was not very upset about the failure of the big difference engine. Even then he understood that it would be a matter of programmable machines. In 1834, Charles began developing a programmable analytical engine, the prototype of the modern computer.
Babbage's Analytical Engine had to consist of several parts:
Warehouse – storing the results of operations and the values of variables. Modern memory.
Mills - was responsible for operations with variables, storing the values of the variables involved in the calculation in this moment. Modern processor.
The third device (it was not named in Babbage’s drawings) – control of the sequence of operations, moving and retrieving variables into the warehouse, outputting the results.
Babbage's Analytical Engine was programmed using two types of punched cards: operational cards and variable cards.
Charles Babbage died in 1871. He left behind the drawings of the Analytical Engine 
The first programmer was Ada Lovelace and lecture notes, which were recorded by the teacher of the Turin Artillery Academy, Luigi Menabrea. On English language the notes were translated by Babbage's friend and colleague, Ada Lovelace (daughter of George Byron). She provided the notes with her comments, which were larger in volume than the main text.
Ada Lovelace, in her comments to Babbage's lectures, also compiled the first instructions for programming the Analytical Engine. After these instructions, Ada Lovelace began to be considered the first programmer.
In 1888, Charles's son, Henry Babbage, created the main assembly of the Analytical Engine based on his father's drawings. Babbage's machine was completely created only in 1906 through the efforts of the Monroe company.
The personality of Charles Babbage and his achievements.
As we wrote above, the technological base of that time was significantly inferior to the train of thought of Charles Babbage. To manufacture his machines, the inventor designed a cross-planing and turret lathe, discovered new method manufacturing gear wheels and designed many more different devices. 
In addition, Babbage's mind was used in the invention of the speedometer and tachometer. The scientist also invented a laboratory car equipped with recorders, a device for throwing objects off the rails.
Our hero also took part in reforming the postal system in England, and worked on issues of encryption and electromagnetism.
Charles Babbage was a very versatile person. Among his friends were Jean Foucault, Charles Darwin, Jung, Fourier and Pierre Laplace. The talented inventor and mathematician left a huge mark on history; it is not for nothing that Babbage is called the inventor of the first computer.
At one time he was considered a genius, then he was almost put into debt.
Indeed, the amounts spent were fantastic for the beginning of the 19th century.
But the promised machine never worked. And he was already dreaming of the next one.
Along the way, he invented the tachometer. He climbed with an expedition to Vesuvius,
dived to the bottom of the lake in a diving bell, participated in archaeological
excavations, studied the occurrence of ores, going down into the mines.
For almost a year he was involved in railway traffic safety and made
a lot of special equipment. Including creating a speedometer.
In addition, he developed a lot of equipment for metal processing.
Charles Babbage was born on December 26, 1791 in London. His father, Benjamin Babbage, was a banker. Mother's name was Elizabeth Babbage. Her maiden name Type. As a child, Charles was in very poor health. At the age of 8, he was sent to a private school in Alphington to be raised by a priest. At that time, his father was already wealthy enough to allow Charles to attend a private school. Benjamin Babbage asked the priest not to give Charles strong study loads due to poor health.
After school at Alphington, Charles was sent to the academy at Enfield, where his real training essentially began. It was there that Babbage began to show interest in mathematics, which was facilitated by a big library in Academy.
After studying at the academy, Babbage studied with two tutors. The first was a priest who lived near Cambridge. According to Charles, the priest would not have given him the knowledge that he could have gained from studying with a more experienced tutor. After the priest, Babbage had a tutor from Oxford. He was able to give Babbage enough basic classical knowledge to enter college.
In 1810 Babbage entered Trinity College, Cambridge. However, he taught himself the basics of mathematics from books. He carefully studied the works of Newton, Leibniz, Lagrange, Lacroix, Euler and other mathematicians of the academies of St. Petersburg, Berlin and Paris. Babbage very quickly overtook his teachers in knowledge and was very disappointed with the level of mathematics teaching at Cambridge. Moreover, he noticed that Britain as a whole was noticeably behind continental countries in terms of the level of mathematical training.
In this regard, he decided to create a society whose goal was to bring modern European mathematics to the University of Cambridge. In 1812, Charles Babbage, his friends John Herschel and George Peacock and several other young mathematicians founded the Analytical Society. They started holding meetings. Discuss various questions related to mathematics. We began to publish our works. For example, in 1816 they published the French mathematician Lacroix's Treatise on Differential and Integral Calculus, translated into English, and in 1820 they published two volumes of examples supplementing this treatise. Through its activity, the Analytical Society initiated the reform of mathematics education, first at Cambridge and then at other universities in Britain.
In 1812 Babbage moved to St. Peter's College (Peterhouse). And in 1814 he received a bachelor's degree. That same year, Charles Babbage married Georgiana Whitmore, and in 1815 they moved from Cambridge to London. During their thirteen years of marriage they had eight children, but five of them died in childhood. In 1816 he became a member of the Royal Society of London. By that time, he had written several large scientific articles in various mathematical disciplines. In 1820 he became a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1827 he buried his father, wife and two children. In 1827 he became professor of mathematical sciences at Cambridge, a post he held for 12 years. After he left this post, he most devoted his time to his life's work - the development of computers.
Difference part Charles Babbage's machine, assembled after the death of a scientist by his son from parts found in his father's laboratory.
Small difference engine
Babbage first thought about creating a mechanism that would allow complex calculations to be performed automatically with great accuracy in 1812. These thoughts were prompted by his study of logarithmic tables, during the recalculation of which numerous errors in calculations were revealed due to human factor. Even then, he began to comprehend the possibility of carrying out complex mathematical calculations using mechanical devices.
However, Babbage did not immediately begin to develop the idea of building a computing mechanism. It was not until 1819, when he became interested in astronomy, that he more precisely defined his ideas and formulated principles for calculating tables by the difference method using a machine that he later called a difference machine. This machine was supposed to perform a complex of calculations using only the addition operation. In 1819, Charles Babbage began building a small difference engine, and in 1822 he completed its construction and gave a presentation to the Royal Astronomical Society on the use of a machine mechanism for calculating astronomical and mathematical tables. He demonstrated the operation of the machine by calculating the terms of a sequence. The operation of the difference machine was based on the finite difference method. The small machine was completely mechanical and consisted of many gears and levers. It used the decimal number system. It operated with 18-bit numbers accurate to the eighth decimal place and provided a calculation speed of 12 sequence terms per minute. The small difference engine could calculate the values of polynomials of the 7th degree.
For the creation of the difference engine, Babbage was awarded the first gold medal of the Astronomical Society. However, the small difference engine was experimental because it had a small memory and could not be used for large calculations.
A working replica of the difference engine at the London Science Museum
IN In 1823, the British government provided him with a subsidy of £1,500 (the total amount of government subsidies Babbage received for the project ultimately amounted to £17,000).
While developing the machine, Babbage did not imagine all the difficulties associated with its implementation, and not only did not meet the promised three years, but nine years later he was forced to suspend his work. However, part of the machine did begin to function and performed calculations with even greater accuracy than expected.
The design of the difference machine was based on the use of the decimal number system. The mechanism was driven by special handles. When funding for the Difference Engine ceased, Babbage began designing a much more general analytical engine, but then still returned to the original development. The improved project he worked on between 1847 and 1849 was called "Difference Engine No. 2"(English) Difference Engine No. 2).
Based on Babbage's works and advice, Swedish publisher, inventor and translator Georg Schutz (Swedish. Georg Scheutz) starting in 1854, managed to build several difference engines and even managed to sell one of them to the British government office in 1859. In 1855 Schutz difference engine received a gold medal at the World Exhibition in Paris. Some time later, another inventor, Martin Wiberg (Swedish. Martin Wiberg), improved the design of the Schutz machine and used it to calculate and publish printed logarithmic tables.
Schutz difference calculator
Babbage's Analytical Engine:
Although difference machine was not built by its inventor for future development computer technology the main thing was something else: in the course of his work, Babbage had the idea of creating a universal computing machine, which he called analytical and which became the prototype of the modern digital computer. Babbage linked an arithmetic device (which he called a “mill”), memory registers combined into a single whole (“warehouse”), and an input/output device implemented using punched cards into a single logical circuit three types. Punched operation cards switched the machine between addition, subtraction, division and multiplication modes. Variable punch cards controlled the transfer of data from memory to the arithmetic unit and back. Numerical punch cards could be used both to enter data into the machine and to store the results of calculations if memory was insufficient.
In general, Babbage was let down by the insufficient precision of metalworking of that time and, of course, the lack of funding
Subsequently, for almost a century, nothing similar to the Analytical Engine appeared, but the idea of using punched cards for data processing was tested quite soon. 20 years after Babbage's death, the American inventor Herman Hollerith created an electromechanical calculating machine - a tabulator, in which punched cards were used to process the results of the population census conducted in the United States in 1890.
A printer! for Babbage's machine:
Babbage devoted the last years of his life to philosophy and political economy.
Charles Babbage died at the age of 79 on October 18, 1871.
Babbage's Difference Machine:
PS.
Much of what is known about this machine comes to us thanks to the scientific work of the gifted amateur mathematician Augusta Ada Byron (Countess Lovelace), daughter of the poet Lord Byron. In 1843, she translated an article on the Analytical Engine written by an Italian mathematician, providing it with her own detailed comments regarding the potential capabilities of the machine.
| Ada Lovelace, one of the few contemporaries of Charles Babbage who was able to evaluate the Analytical Engine, is sometimes called the world's first programmer. She theoretically developed some techniques for controlling the sequence of calculations that are still used in programming today. For example, she described commands that ensure that a specific sequence of steps is repeated until a specified condition is met. Now such a construction is called a loop. One of the programming languages is named after Ada Lovelace... IN period 1989 to 1991, for the bicentenary of the birth of Charles Babbage, a working copy was assembled based on his original works at the London Science Museum difference engine No. 2. In 2000, a printer, also invented by Babbage for his machine, began operating in the same museum. After eliminating minor design inaccuracies found in old drawings, both designs worked flawlessly. These experiments brought an end to the long debate about the fundamental operability of Charles Babbage's designs (some researchers believe that Babbage deliberately introduced inaccuracies into his drawings, thus trying to protect his creations from unauthorized copying). Sources: 1.
Biography of Charles Babbage |
Despite the failure with the difference engine, Babbage in 1834 thought about creating a programmable computer, which he called analytical (the prototype of the modern computer). Unlike the difference engine, the analytical engine made it possible to solve a wider range of problems. It was this car that became his life’s work and brought posthumous fame. He assumed that building a new machine would require less time and money than modifying a difference machine, since it was supposed to consist of simpler mechanical elements. In 1834, Babbage began designing the Analytical Engine.
The architecture of a modern computer is in many ways similar to the architecture of an analytical engine. In the Analytical Engine, Babbage provided the following parts: a warehouse (store), a factory or mill (mill), a control element (control) and information input-output devices.
The warehouse was intended to store both the values of the variables with which operations are performed and the results of operations. In modern terminology this is called memory.
The mill (arithmetic-logical device, part of a modern processor) was supposed to perform operations on variables, and also store in registers the value of the variables with which it is currently performing an operation.
The third device, which Babbage did not give a name, controlled the sequence of operations, the placement of variables in and out of storage, and the output of results. It read sequences of operations and variables from punched cards. There were two types of punched cards: operational cards and variable cards. From the operating cards it was possible to compile a library of functions. In addition, according to Babbage's plan, the Analytical Engine was supposed to contain a printing device and a device for outputting results onto punched cards for subsequent use.
To create a computer in modern understanding All that remained was to come up with a stored program circuit, which was done 100 years later by Eckert, Mauchly and Von Neumann.
Babbage developed the design of the Analytical Engine alone. He often attended industrial exhibitions, where various new science and technology were presented. It was there that he met Ada Augusta Lovelace (daughter of George Byron), who became his very close friend, assistant and only like-minded person. In 1840, Babbage traveled at the invitation of Italian mathematicians to Turin, where he lectured about his machine. Luigi Menabrea, a teacher at the Turin Artillery Academy, created and published lecture notes on French. Later, Ada Lovelace translated these lectures into English, supplementing them with comments in volume exceeding the original text. In the comments, Ada made a description of the digital computer and programming instructions for it. These were the first programs in the world. That is why Ada Lovelace is rightly called the first programmer. However, the Analytical Engine was never completed. Here is what Babbage wrote in 1851: “All developments related to the Analytical Engine have been carried out at my expense. I conducted a number of experiments and reached the point where my capabilities are not enough. In this regard, I am forced to refuse further work.” Despite the fact that Babbage described in detail the design of the Analytical Engine and the principles of its operation, it was never built during his lifetime. There were many reasons for this. But the main ones were complete absence financing of the project to create an analytical engine and the low level of technology of that time. Babbage did not ask for help from the government this time, since he understood that after the failure with the difference engine, he would still be refused.
Only after the death of Charles Babbage did his son, Henry Babbage, continue the work begun by his father. In 1888, Henry managed to build the central unit of the Analytical Engine based on his father's drawings. And in 1906, Henry, together with the Monroe company, built a working model of an analytical engine, including an arithmetic unit and a device for printing results. Babbage's machine turned out to be functional, but Charles did not live to see these days.
In 1864, Charles Babbage wrote: “It will probably be half a century before people will be convinced that the means I leave behind cannot be dispensed with.” In his assumption, he was mistaken by 30 years. Only 80 years after this statement, the MARK-I machine was built, which was called “Babbage’s dream come true.” The architecture of MARK-I was very similar to the architecture of the Analytical Engine. Howard Aiken actually seriously studied the publications of Babbage and Ada Lovelace before creating his machine, and his machine ideologically slightly advanced compared to the unfinished Analytical Engine. The productivity of MARK-I turned out to be only ten times higher than the calculated speed of the analytical engine.
English polymath, mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, who in the 19th century developed the concept of a universal digital computer, which is considered the prototype of modern computers.
In fact, Charles Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer, which eventually led to more complex designs. In addition, he owns many outstanding works in other fields. Some of Babbage's unfinished mechanisms are on display at the London Science Museum. In 1991, according to the inventor’s drawings, a perfectly functioning so-called Charles Babbage difference engine was built. Babbage is often mentioned in steampunk novels. In 2008, a short film "Babbage" was made about him, shown at the Cannes Film Festival.
The future inventor was born on December 26, 1791 in London. He was one of four children of banker Benjamin Babbage and his wife Betsy Plumleigh Teape. When the boy turned eight, he was sent to boarding school in rural areas to gain strength after a life-threatening fever. For some time he studied at King Edward VI Grammar School, but poor health forced his parents to turn to the services of tutors. Babbage later became a student at Holmwood Academy in Middlesex, which had a rich scientific library - it was there that his love for mathematics awoke.
One way or another, teachers and tutors were able to prepare young Charles for exams at the University of Cambridge, and in October 1810 he became a student at Trinity College. Alas, the level of mathematics at Cambridge disappointed Babbage, who by that time had independently studied many of the works of outstanding mathematicians of his time. In 1812, together with several friends, he founded the Analytical Society at the university, and in 1814 he received his degree without exams. He quickly achieved some success - a year later, young Babbage lectured on astronomy at the Royal Institution, in 1816 he became a member of the Royal Society of London, and in 1819 he visited Paris, where he met with leading French mathematicians and physicists. On the other hand, he was not very lucky in terms of his career - despite his undoubted abilities and excellent recommendations, profitable and prestigious teaching positions always went to someone else, and Charles was forced to rely on the support of his father. In 1827, after his death, Babbage inherited a large fortune for those times, about 100,000 pounds, which made him independent in his research.
He married early, in 1814, he and his wife had eight children (although only four of them survived), and after the death of his wife, who died in 1827, he traveled widely. He was in Rome when he learned that he had finally received a professorship at Cambridge, which had previously rejected him three times.
Babbage's main passion was the creation of computers, but throughout his life he remained a man of broad interests. Babbage was instrumental in the founding of the Astronomical Society in 1820, developed the requirements for a modern postal system, taught at Cambridge University from 1828 to 1939, and published three important scientific works during this period, and in 1832 he was elected an honorary foreign member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He had a keen interest in political economy, tried to get involved in politics (without much success) and was interested in theology, cryptography, metalworking in particular and technology in general, and also participated in public campaigns. His colleagues did not like him, since Babbage was always more interested in his own research than teaching, but they always gave him credit as a scientist and inventor. Among Babbage's other famous inventions are those necessary in modern life objects like seismograph, speedometer and ophthalmoscope.
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