The position of any point on the globe can be determined using geographic coordinates - that's what they are created for. But even the coordinates themselves are different: latitude, although very approximately, speaks of the temperature regime of the place (it can be said with certainty that 10-15 ° latitude is warmer than 75-80 °); but even at the same latitude, natural conditions can be very different. Longitude in itself does not carry any information if we do not know what is located around the place we are considering, especially since, in principle, any meridian can be taken as the starting point for counting longitude. Therefore, the concept of geographical location goes far beyond the characteristics of the position of an object in terms of coordinates.
Geographical position is the position of any geographical feature on the earth
surface in relation to other objects with which it interacts. Geographical location is an important characteristic of an object, as it largely gives an idea of its natural and socio-economic features.
To determine the geographical location of any geographical object, it is necessary, first of all, to resolve the question - why is this being done?
We characterize the geographical position of Moscow in order to determine what determines the climate of the city. In this case, it is important, first of all, at what latitude Moscow is located. 56 ° latitude is a temperate zone of illumination, almost throughout the globe there are also moderate thermal and climatic zones. Western winds prevail at these latitudes. The city is located in the middle of a vast plain at a fairly large (1000-1500 km) distance from the seas, but the plain is open to winds of all directions - the prevailing western, humid, from the relatively warm Atlantic Ocean, cold northern, from the Arctic Ocean, less frequent, dry from Central Asia. The position of Moscow among a large landmass makes the climate continental, but the free access of air from the Atlantic softens this continentality.
To characterize the geographical position of Moscow as the capital of Russia, a major industrial and cultural center, one must also pay attention to its position in the center of the plain, but here the hydrographic network comes first - navigable rivers and places where in the old days it was possible to cross by drag from one river pool to another. Favorable in the old days was the situation in the forest zone, less accessible to nomads from the south than, for example, near Kyiv. Moscow became the center around which the Russian state was formed at the end of the Horde rule and after its overthrow. Roads connected Moscow with many cities, Moscow became a major transport hub. In the future, the road network itself became an important factor in the geographical position that contributed to the development of the city. It is especially important because there are no significant raw materials and energy resources near the city. natural resources, much has to be delivered from distant places.
In the first case, we considered the physical-geographical position of the city (with a narrow goal - only to explain its climate), in the second - the economic-geographical one.
Economic and geographical position (EGP)- these are all spatial relations of an enterprise, a locality, a region, a country, a group of countries to external objects that are of economic importance to them. The EGP of any object can be assessed as favorable, contributing to the economic development of the object, and unfavorable - preventing it. EGP is a historical concept, in the course of changing the economic object itself and the objects associated with it, it can become more favorable than it was before, or less favorable.
The city's EGP can improve if a road is built to it; it may worsen if a road is made to bypass this city, and the paths that previously passed through it now go sideways.
The EGP will improve if a mineral deposit is discovered near the city, it will worsen if the entire deposit is depleted, and there are no other significant industries in the city.
A country's EGP can worsen if its border, through which there used to be free passage, is closed for some political reasons.
Let us consider as examples the economic and geographical position of several states and cities.
Great Britain, an island nation in Western Europe. The country is located on the island of Great Britain and also occupies the north of the island of Ireland, so the full name of the state is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The island of Great Britain is separated from continental Europe by the English Channel, which in its narrowest part (Pas de Calais) is 32 km wide. Proximity to the continent was at first the reason that the Roman conquests (I century BC) spread here, and then the conquests of the Normans (1066). But then, with the strengthening of the state, the insular position became advantageous: from the 11th century. no attempt at foreign invasion of British territory was successful. At the same time, having many good natural harbors, Great Britain has become a seafaring power, has a powerful fleet, and has conducted and continues to conduct maritime trade with the whole world. The British navy has long been considered the best in the world. The insular position helps the country to maintain a certain identity even in the context of globalization, while at the same time the small distance separating it from continental Europe allows it to maintain very close ties with it; a tunnel has now been created under the Pas de Calais between Great Britain and France, through which land transport passes.
Panama, a state in Central America, in the narrowest part of the isthmus connecting North America with South. It would seem that the situation is very advantageous: control over the isthmus that controls the connection between the continents. But the mountainous relief of Central America and dense tropical vegetation impeded the development of land transport here, and no control over it turned out. More important for Panama was not what geographic features connects the Isthmus of Panama, on which it is located, and what objects it separates are the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In 1914, the Panama Canal was built, and in 1920 officially opened, a little more than 80 km long, connecting the Caribbean Sea of the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Thus, Panama began to control not a barely noticeable cargo flow by land between the continents, but a very powerful one - between the oceans, since the path along the canal is much shorter than the path around South America from the south, and the EGP of Panama immediately improved significantly.
Singapore, city-state in South-East Asia, near the extreme southern point of the Eurasian continent. Singapore is located on the island of the same name near the southern end of the Malay Peninsula. Most ships en route from indian ocean to the Pacific passes through the Strait of Malacca (between the island of Sumatra and the Peninsula of Malacca) and goes around Malacca from the south, so it is very difficult to bypass Singapore. Therefore, the EGP of the island and the city should be considered extremely profitable. Almost all trade between Europe, India, the countries of the Persian Gulf, some African countries, on the one hand, and China, Japan, South Korea, the Russian Far East, on the other, passes through this route. Therefore, over the past decades, Singapore has come out on top among the ports of the whole world in terms of cargo turnover. Singapore is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait through which bridges are thrown, so that a good land connection with the Malaysian mainland and with Thailand is possible, but Singapore's land connections with other mainland countries are small, since the road network in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia is poor.
Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, Magadan What are the similarities and differences in their economic and geographical position? All three cities are located in the Far East of Russia. All three cities are the centers of subjects of the Russian Federation (Vladivostok and Khabarovsk are regional centers, Magadan is regional). Vladivostok and Magadan are seaports: Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan, Magadan on the Sea of Okhotsk.
Vladivostok is much (at 17° latitude) to the south, so it can be used all year round. The advantage of Vladivostok lies in the fact that the railway approaches it - it is the terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The settlements surrounding Vladivostok are well provided with land transport, and are also located within the area with natural conditions favorable for Agriculture and therefore do not need a seaport to serve them. In this regard, Vladivostok is focused on foreign trade - export and import.
The Magadan region has a transport connection with the rest of the territory of Russia practically only through its own regional center and he really needs such a connection, because he cannot provide himself with food and many other resources. There are no railways in the region, but a motor road (Kolyma tract) goes from Magadan, on which or near which most of the settlements areas. Therefore, the port of Magadan mainly serves its region, providing it with everything imported from other regions of Russia. True, there is a motor road to Yakutsk from the Kolyma tract, but the railway does not reach Yakutsk itself, so there is no reason to carry anything to the Magadan region through Yakutsk.
Khabarovsk, unlike Vladivostok and Magadan, does not stand on the coast and, therefore, is not a seaport. It is located at the intersection of the Trans-Siberian Railway and the large Amur River near the confluence of the Ussuri. Khabarovsk is an important river port, and in fact a railway junction: not in the city itself, but only 50 kilometers from it, the line to Komsomolsk-on-Amur - Vanino - Sovetskaya Gavan departs from the Trans-Siberian Railway. All this makes the transport position of Khabarovsk very advantageous, since Komsomolsk is the terminus of the Baikal-Amur Railway, while Vanino and Sovetskaya Gavan are seaports.
Militarily, Vladivostok and Khabarovsk are more vulnerable, as they are located near the state border, while Magadan is on the Sea of Okhotsk, whose shores are completely controlled by Russia.
Geographical position § The vast territory of Central Siberia is located between the valley of the Yenisei River and the western foot of the Verkhoyansk Range. It extends from the shores of the Kara and Laptev Seas to the foothills of the mountains of Southern Siberia (Eastern Sayan, the ridges of the Baikal region, the Patom and Aldan highlands). The maximum length of Central Siberia from north to south, from Cape Chelyuskin to Irkutsk, exceeds 2800 km (about 25°), and from west to east at the latitude of Yakutsk - 2500 km (about 45°). The area of Central Siberia is about 4 million km 2. § It makes up 23.39% of the area of the Russian Federation. § The northern and eastern borders are disputed.
Boundaries of Central Siberia § In contrast to Western Siberia, the boundaries of Central Siberia on different schemes of physical-geographical zoning do not coincide. This is due to the greater contrast of nature within the country, with its less clear boundaries, the ambiguous interpretation of the actual data available to researchers, and the insufficient comprehensive physical and geographical knowledge of the border regions, characterized by a transitional landscape structure. § The greatest disagreements arise regarding the northern and eastern borders of the country. They concern the position of the North Siberian Lowland and Taimyr, the Central Yakut Plain and the Aldan Highlands.
History of study § The Great Northern Expedition (1733 - 1743) and its Academic Detachment under the leadership of I. G. Gmelin made a great contribution to the study of the nature of Central Siberia; § Academic expeditions of P. S. Pallas (1768-1774); § Siberian expedition of the naturalist and geographer A.F. Middendorf (1843 - 1844), organized on behalf of the Academy of Sciences; § In 1854, the Siberian branch of the Russian Geographical Society organized the expedition of R. K. Maak; § Expedition of A. L. Chekanovsky (1873 - 1875); § Expedition of I.P. Tolmachev (1905 - 1906)
§ Before Middendorf were assigned the task of studying permafrost and life in high latitudes far from the seas. He was the first scientific explorer of the Taimyr Peninsula. He studied the organic world of this territory, established patterns of distribution of tree species at their northern limit, characterized the geology and relief of the North Siberian Lowland and the Byrranga Mountains, was the first to determine the boundaries of permafrost distribution in Siberia and calculated the permafrost thickness in Yakutsk (204 m). § A. F. Midderdorf calls Siberia a wonderland that plunges scientists all over the world into amazement. Finishing a general assessment of the climate in his book "Journey to the North and East of Siberia", he writes that "nowhere ... as there, the character of the country to the smallest features is not determined to such an extent by climate." § The expedition of R. K. Maak in the Vilyui basin carried out a route description of nature, population and economy. The large factual material collected by the expedition made it possible to make corrections to geographical maps. § The expedition of A. L. Chekanovsky illuminated, geologically and geographically, the vast expanses of the Central Siberian Plateau from the Lower Tunguska to the mouths of the Olenek and Lena. Chekanovsky was the first to give a description of the Siberian traps, he was the first to characterize the entire territory along N. Tunguska as a plateau - a scientific discovery of the Central Siberian Plateau. § At the beginning of the 20th century, deposits of Vilyui salt, gold, coal, iron ores were studied. Geologist I.P. Tolmachev (1905 - 1906) discovered the Anabar plateau and singled out the Anabar massif as a separate unit of the Siberian platform. § In 1909 - 1914 reconnaissance soil-botanical studies were carried out by detachments of the long-term expedition of the Resettlement Administration in the southern part of Central Siberia. In 1914, a three-volume work was published - "Asian Russia" with an atlas of maps
Geological structure and history of the development of the territory § The tectonic basis of Central Siberia is the ancient Siberian platform, the boundary of which is usually drawn along the northern margin of the Central Siberian Plateau. § The tectonic position of the northern part of Central Siberia is determined ambiguously. For a long time the territory of Taimyr and the North Siberian Lowland was considered an area of Hercynian folding, then areas of Caledonian, Baikal and Mesozoic folding began to be distinguished within its boundaries. All this was reflected in tectonic maps (1952, 1957, 1969 and 1978). However, the latest works on the tectonics of Taimyr have established that its structure, as well as the structure of the Anabar massif, includes metamorphic basement complexes overlain by Proterozoic deposits. This gave reason to M.V. Muratov (1977) to classify Taimyr as a shield, including it in the Siberian Platform. § The southeastern part of the platform, its Aldan Shield, is not included in Central Siberia. The basis is the significant differences in the modern nature of the Aldan Highlands and Central Siberia, due to the fact that its development over a long Meso-Cenozoic history differs significantly from the development of the rest of the platform and approaches the North Baikal highlands.
Geological history § The foundation of the platform is composed of Archean and Proterozoic folded complexes and has a dissected relief. In the Anabar massif, basement rocks (gneisses, quartzites, marbles, granites) come to the surface. Areas of shallow basement (up to 1 - 1.5 km) are located on the outskirts of the Anabar massif, the northern slope of the Aldan shield, on the western outskirts of the platform (the Turukhan uplift, the slope of the Yenisei massif) and cross the territory from northeast to southwest from the lower reaches of the Lena to the Eastern Sayan. The folded structures of the Yenisei uplift were created in the Late Proterozoic (Baikalian folding). § The basement uplifts are separated by extensive and deep depressions: the Tungusskaya, the Pyasinsko-Khatanga (if Taimyr is considered the shield of the Siberian platform), the Angara-Lena and Vilyuiskaya, which in the east merges with the Pre-Verkhoyansk marginal foredeep. The depressions are filled with sedimentary strata of great thickness (8 - 12 km). Only in the Angara-Lena trough the thickness of the cover does not exceed 3 km. § Within the Taimyr Peninsula, Baikal, Caledonian and Hercynian structures are distinguished, sometimes Mesozoic ones are added to the listed ones. § At the base of the North Siberian Lowland there is an epihercynian platform with a sedimentary cover thicker than 2 km. § The formation of the sedimentary cover of the Siberian Platform began in the Lower Paleozoic by general subsidence, which caused a major marine transgression. § The Yenisei Ridge is a Baikal structure.
Geological history § Cambrian deposits are characterized by great facies variability and breaks in sedimentation, indicating a fairly large mobility of the territory. Along with conglomerates, sandstones, and limestones, red-colored strata containing salts and gypsum accumulated along the margins of the platform in sea lagoons. § But limestones and dolomites prevail among the Lower Paleozoic deposits, coming to the surface in vast areas. § At the end of the Silurian, almost the entire territory experienced uplift, which was an echo of the Caledonian folding in the territories adjacent to the platform. The maritime regime has been preserved only in the Pyasa-Khatanga depression and in the northwestern part of the Tunguska syneclise. During the Devonian, the area of the platform continued to be land. In the Early Devonian, the South Taimyr aulacogen was laid down, where a complete section of Devonian deposits accumulated. § In the Upper Paleozoic, under conditions of slow subsidence, a lacustrine-marsh regime is established in the vast territory of the Tunguska and Pyasinsko-Khatanga syneclises. Thick layers of the Tunguska suite have accumulated here. The lower part of this suite is represented by the so-called productive stratum - alternating sandstones, clayey and carbonaceous shales, siltstones and interlayers of coal. The thickness of this sequence is up to 1.5 km. It is associated with industrial coal seams spread over a vast territory.
Geological history § The productive coal-bearing stratum is permeated by numerous intrusions of basic igneous rocks and overlain by a volcanogenic stratum consisting of tuffs, tuff breccias, lava covers with interlayers of sedimentary rocks. Its formation is associated with the manifestation of platform fissure magmatism at the end of the Permian - Triassic, due to the activation of faults and the crushing of the basement, which coincided with tectonic movements in the neighboring Ural-Mongolian belt. The effusive and intrusive formations of the basic composition created by him are called traps, and the magmatism itself is called trap magmatism. § Traps - a characteristic feature geological structure Siberian platform, which sharply distinguishes it from the Russian platform. Forms of occurrence of traps are varied. There is a clear pattern in their distribution. Thick basalt (lava) sheets predominate in the Kurey depression, the most deeply subsided northwestern part of the Tunguska syneclise. Cross-cutting intrusions (dykes, veins, stocks) dominate the central part of the syneclise. Laccoliths and sheet intrusions (sills) are most characteristic of its western, eastern, and southern margins, where the main fault zones pass, separating the syneclise from other structures. The bulk of the explosion tubes (ring structures) is also concentrated here. Outside the Tunguska syneclise, traps are much less common (in Taimyr, along the northern outskirts of the Anabar massif). § The erupted and intruded basaltic magma permeated the rocks of the platform, creating an even more rigid and stable frame, so the western part was hardly subjected to subsidence in the future. § At the turn of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, block movements, ruptures and folding occurred in the South Taimyr aulacogen.
Geological history § In the late Mesozoic, most of Central Siberia experienced uplift and was a demolition area. The Kurey depression rose especially intensively, turning into an inverted morphostructure - the Putorana plateau, the Anabar arch and the northern part of the Yenisei uplift. Sagging occurs in the Pyasinsko-Khatanga syneclise, along the eastern and southern margins of the platform. It is accompanied by a short-term marine transgression, which did not go far to the south; therefore, among the Jurassic deposits, continental coal-bearing strata with commercial coal reserves sharply predominate. Cretaceous deposits are common only in Pyasinsko. Khatanga syneclise (alluvial-lacustrine low carbonaceous facies), Vilyui syneclise and Predverkhoyansk trough, where they are represented by a thick (up to 2000 m) alluvial coarse clastic sequence. § By the end of the Mesozoic, the entire territory of Central Siberia was a compact land, which was an area of denudation and formation of leveling surfaces and weathering crust.
Geological history § The Cenozoic was characterized by differentiated oscillatory movements with general trend to the rise. As a result, erosion processes dominated sharply. The surface was divided by a river network. Paleogene deposits are rare, represented by alluvial clays, sands and pebbles, and are associated with the remains of ancient river valleys. At the end of the Neogene and in the Quaternary, against the background of a general uplift, the differentiation of vertical movements increased. The Byrranga, Putorana, Anabar and Yenisei massifs rose most intensively. The eastern part of the Vilyui syneclise experienced subsidence, where during the Neogene a sequence of large-clastic red-colored pebbles 3–4 km thick accumulated. § In general, the Siberian platform is characterized by a greater activation of neotectonic movements compared to the Russian one, which is reflected in a higher hypsometric position and the predominance of high plateaus and plains. § As a result of the latest tectonic movements, the ancient hydrographic network was restructured. This is evidenced by the remains of river systems preserved on the watersheds. The general uplift of the territory caused a deep incision of the rivers and the formation of a series of river terraces.
Geological history § At the beginning of the Quaternary period, the land occupied the largest areas and extended north to the boundaries of the modern shelf. Against the background of a general cooling that began in the Neogene, this caused an increase in the continentality and severity of the climate of Central Siberia, a decrease in precipitation. During the Middle Pleistocene boreal transgression, the North Siberian lowland and the subsided margins of Taimyr were flooded with sea waters. The Byrranga Mountains and Severnaya Zemlya were low islands. The sea came close to the northern and northwestern foothills of the Central Siberian Plateau. This caused an increase in precipitation and the development of glaciation. The glaciation centers were the Putorana and Taimyr Plateaus. It has now been established that the maximum (Samarov) glaciation was a cover. Its border is quite clearly visible only in the southwestern part: the mouth of the Podkamennaya Tunguska, the upper reaches of the Vilyui and Markha and further to the Olenek valley. The eastern segment of the boundary is not traced; the Taz glaciation was smaller. § After a short-term regression of the sea, during which not only Taimyr, but also Severnaya Zemlya joined the land, a new sea transgression begins. The Zyryansk (Upper Pleistocene) glaciation develops. Ice accumulation took place in Taimyr, the Putorana Plateau and the Anabar massif. The boundary of the maximum distribution of ice during the Zyryansk glaciation passed from the mouth of the Lower Tunguska to the upper reaches of the Moyero River (the right tributary of the Kotui), went around the Anabar massif from the south, went to the lower course of the Anabar River and to the eastern tip of Taimyr. The last phase of the degradation of the Upper Pleistocene glaciation is considered to be the mountain-valley Sartan stage, traces of which have been recorded in the central part of the Putorana Plateau, in Taimyr.
Geological history § main feature glaciation in Central Siberia - a small thickness of the glacier. The sea approaching the foot of the Central Siberian Plateau was cold, so the air formed above it contained little moisture. Most of the precipitation fell in the northwestern part - on Taimyr and the Putorana Plateau. To the south and east, the amount of precipitation rapidly decreased, and the thickness of the glacier also sharply decreased. § With low mobility of glaciers, their destructive activity was also small. The body of the glaciers contained little moraine material and was weakly rounded, i.e., similar to slope deluvial deposits. The small relief-forming role of the Central Siberian glaciers also led to a much weaker preservation of traces of their existence than on the Russian Plain and in Western Siberia. § Huge areas of the inner parts of Central Siberia were in the conditions of the periglacial regime. The cold dry climate contributed to the deep freezing of soils and soils. Permafrost was formed, and in some places underground ice. The formation of permafrost was especially intensive at the end of the Middle Pleistocene, during the period of sea regression, when, due to the increase in land area in the northern latitudes, the continentality and dryness of the climate of Central Siberia sharply increased.
Geological history § The tendency for the climate to cool since the Neogene led to a gradual depletion of vegetation in Central Siberia. In the Lower Pleistocene, coniferous-broad-leaved forests of the Pliocene rich in species composition gave way to depleted Beringian dark coniferous taiga with an admixture of broad-leaved species (linden, oak, hornbeam, hazel) in the southern regions. § Further cooling and the development of glaciations led to the wide distribution of tundra and forest-tundra, and in the southern regions - peculiar cold forest-steppes, represented by an alternation of larch-birch-pine forests with open tundra-steppe spaces. § The general warming of the climate during the interglacial favored the advancement of forests to the north. § In the late and post-glacial times, there was a general uplift of the territory, the climate had several warm and cold phases, dry and wet periods associated with changes in circulation conditions (the predominance of meridional circulation, or western transport). This led to a significant mobility of natural zones in the territory of Central Siberia. The increase in the continentality of the climate contributed to the widespread development of herbaceous vegetation of the steppe type and the accumulation of salts in soils. The decrease in continentality and some increase in precipitation led to the replacement of steppe vegetation by forests and forest-steppes.
Relief § Most of the territory is represented by the deeply dissected Central Siberian Plateau, the height of which gradually decreases to the east, towards the Central Yakut Plain and the Lena Valley. The North Siberian Lowland separates the plateau from the Byrranga Mountains (1146 m), occupying the northern and central parts of the Taimyr Peninsula. § The Putorana Plateau is the highest part of the Central Siberian Plateau. The highest point of Kamen (1701 m). § Less than 100 m are characteristic heights for the North Siberian Lowland and the northern part of Taimyr.
Minerals § § § § Copper, nickel, cobalt ores Iron ores Gold Diamonds Coal Oil Natural gas Graphite
Climate § main feature The climate of Central Siberia is a sharp continentality, due to the position of the territory in the middle part of North Asia. She is on far away from the warm seas of the Atlantic Ocean, protected by mountain ranges from the influence of the Pacific and exposed to the influence of the Arctic Ocean. The continentality of the climate increases from west to east and from north to south, reaching the highest degree in Central Yakutia. § The climate of Central Siberia is characterized by large annual amplitudes of average monthly (50 - 65°C) and extreme (up to 102°C) temperatures, short transition periods (one to two months) with large daily amplitudes (up to 25 - 30°C), very uneven intra-annual distribution of precipitation and their relatively a large number of. The large differences between winter and summer air temperatures in Central Siberia are primarily due to the strong supercooling of the surface in winter. § The total radiation varies within the country from 65 kcal / cm 2 per year in the northern part of Taimyr to 110 kcal / cm 2 per year in the Irkutsk region, and the radiation balance varies from 8 to 32 kcal / cm 2 per year, respectively. From October to March, the radiation balance in most of the territory is negative. In January, solar radiation practically does not enter the northern part of the country, in the Yakutsk region it is only 1 - 2 kcal / cm 2, and in the far south it does not exceed 3 kcal / cm 2. In summer, the influx of solar energy depends little on latitude, since the decrease in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays towards the north is almost compensated by the increase in the duration of sunshine. As a result, the total radiation throughout the entire territory of Central Siberia is about 15 kcal / cm 2 per month, only in Central Yakutia it increases to 16 kcal / cm 2.
Peculiarities of winter weather § In winter, Central Siberia is in the sphere of influence of the Asian High, the spur of which runs along the southeastern outskirts of the country, capturing Central Yakutia. The pressure gradually decreases to the northwest, towards a trough extending from the Icelandic Low. Almost throughout the entire territory, with the exception of the northwest, anticyclonic clear, almost cloudless, frosty and dry, often windless weather prevails in winter. Winter lasts five to seven months. The long stay of low-moving anticyclones over the territory of Central Siberia causes a strong cooling of the surface and the surface layer of air, the occurrence of powerful temperature inversions. This is also facilitated by the nature of the relief: the presence of deep river valleys and basins, in which masses of cold heavy air stagnate. The continental air of temperate latitudes prevailing here is characterized by very low temperatures (even lower than the Arctic air) and a low moisture content. Therefore, the January temperatures in Central Siberia are 6 - 20°C lower than the mid-latitude ones. § The stability of winter anticyclonic weather decreases in the direction from the east and southeast to the west and northwest as one moves away from the high pressure axis. The frequency of cyclonic weather especially increases in the northwest due to active cyclogenesis on the Taimyr branch of the Arctic front. Cyclones cause an increase in wind, an increase in cloudiness and precipitation, and an increase in air temperature.
§ § The lowest average January temperatures are typical for the Central Yakut lowland (-45°C) and the northeastern part of the Central Siberian Plateau (-42... -43°C). On some days the thermometer drops down to -68°С in the valleys and basins of these regions. To the north, temperatures rise to -31°C, and to the west to -26. . . 30°C. This is due to the less stable anticyclonic weather and the more frequent intrusion of Arctic air, especially from the Barents Sea. But temperatures increase most significantly towards the southwest due to an increase in the arrival of solar energy. Here, in Pre-Sayanye, the average January temperatures are -20.9°C (Irkutsk), -18.5°C (Krasnoyarsk). Due to the great dryness of the air, the abundance of clear sunny days and the constancy (low variability) of the weather low temperatures air is carried relatively easily not only by the old-timers of Siberia, but also by visitors. However, the exceptional severity and duration of winter require large expenditures to maintain comfortable conditions (heat) in dwellings, and increase the cost of capital construction and heating. There is little precipitation in winter, about 20 - 25% of the annual amount. This is about 100 - 150 mm in most of the territory, and less than 50 mm in Central Yakutia. Therefore, despite the long winters, as well as the almost complete absence of thaws, the thickness of the snow cover in Central Siberia is small. In Central Yakutia and in the Pre-Sayan region, at the end of winter, the thickness of the snow cover is less than 30 cm; in the far north, due to an increase in cyclonic activity, it increases to 40–50 cm. area of the Lower and Podkamennaya Tunguska, - more than 80 cm. Spring in Central Siberia is late, friendly and short. Almost throughout the entire territory, it occurs in the second half of April, and in the north - in late May - early June. The melting of snows and the increase in temperatures proceed rapidly, but returns of cold weather are often observed due to breakthroughs of arctic air to the southern outskirts of Central Siberia.
Features of summer weather § In summer, due to the heating of the surface over the territory of Central Siberia, a reduced pressure is established. Air masses rush here from the Arctic Ocean, the western transfer is intensifying. But the cold Arctic air, entering the land, very quickly transforms (warms up and moves away from the state of saturation) into the continental air of temperate latitudes. July isotherms pass sublatitudinally. This is especially clearly seen within the North. Siberian lowland. § The lowest temperature in summer is observed at Cape Chelyuskin (2°C). When moving south, July temperatures rise from 4°C at the foot of the Byrranga Mountains to 12°C near the ledge of the Central Siberian Plateau and up to 18°C in Central Yakutia. On the low plains of Central Siberia, the influence of the inland position on the distribution of summer temperatures is clearly traced. Here, the average July temperature is higher than at the same latitudes in Western Siberia and the European part of Russia. For example, in Yakutsk, located near 62°C with. sh. , the average July temperature is 18.7°C, and in Petrozavodsk, located at the same latitude, it is almost 3°C lower (15.9°C). Within the limits of the Central Siberian Plateau, this regularity is obscured by the influence of the relief. The high hypsometric position causes less heating of the surface, therefore, in most of its territory, the average temperature in July is 14 - 16 ° C and only in the southern outskirts does it reach 18 - 19 ° C (Irkutsk 17.6 °, Krasnoyarsk 18.6 °). With an increase in the height of the area, summer temperatures decrease, i.e., on the territory of the plateau, a vertical differentiation of temperature conditions is traced, which is especially clearly expressed on the Putorana Plateau.
§ In summer, the frequency of cyclones sharply increases. This entails an increase in cloudiness and precipitation, especially in the second half of summer. The beginning of summer is dry. In July-August, usually 2-3 times more precipitation falls than during the entire cold period. Precipitation falls more often in the form of long continuous rains. Above for the most part Cyclones of the Arctic front pass through Central Siberia, and over the south - cyclones of the Mongolian branch of the polar front. § The end of August for most of the territory can be considered the beginning of autumn. Autumn is short. Temperatures are dropping very quickly. In October, even in the extreme south, the average monthly temperature negative and increased pressure is formed. § The bulk of precipitation in the form of rain and snow is brought by air masses coming from the west and northwest. Therefore, the largest annual precipitation (more than 600 mm) is characteristic of the western, Yenisei part of Central Siberia. The aggravation of cyclones and an increase in precipitation in these areas is also facilitated by the orographic barrier - the ledge of the Central Siberian Plateau. Here, on the highest plateaus of the northwestern part (Putorana, Siverma, Tunguska), the maximum amount of precipitation for Central Siberia falls - over 1000 mm. To the east, the annual precipitation decreases, amounting to less than 400 mm in the Lena basin, and only about 300 mm in Central Yakutia. Here evaporation is 2.5 times higher than the annual amount of precipitation. The moisture coefficient in the area of the lower reaches of the Aldan and Vilyui is only 0.4. In the Pre-Sayan region, moisture is unstable, the moisture coefficient is slightly less than unity. In the rest of the territory of Central Siberia, the annual amount of precipitation is greater or close to evaporation, therefore, moisture is excessive.
Features of the climate § From year to year, the amount of precipitation varies greatly. In wet years, it is 2.5 - 3 times the amount of precipitation in dry years. § Insufficient moisture in Central Yakutia, areas located at 60 - 64 ° N. sh. , is one of the consequences of the sharp continentality of the climate, which reaches its greatest extent here. § In large areas of Central Siberia, the excess of annual amplitudes over the average for latitudes is 30 - 40 ° С. § There are almost no places on the globe (in Russia - only the North-East) that can compete with Central Siberia in terms of the degree of continentality of the climate. § Many features of the nature of Central Siberia are associated with the sharp continentality of its climate, with its characteristic great contrasts of the seasons of the year. § This significantly affects the processes of weathering and soil formation, the hydrological regime of rivers and relief-forming processes, the development and distribution of vegetation
Permafrost § Permafrost is widespread in the territory of Central Siberia almost everywhere. It is the result of a long and deep cooling of the surface. The formation of permafrost occurred as early as the Ice Age, when the harsh, snowy, sharply continental climate was even more pronounced than at present. The formation of permafrost is associated with the loss of a large amount of heat in the anticyclonic conditions of the cold period and deep freezing of rocks. In summer, the rocks did not have time to completely thaw. So for hundreds and thousands of years there was a gradual "accumulation of cold". The temperature of frozen rocks decreased, their thickness increased. Therefore, permafrost is a legacy of the ice age, a kind of relic. But in the North Siberian Lowland, Holocene alluvial deposits are also covered by permafrost, and on the dumps of the mining industry in the Norilsk region, permafrost forms literally before the eyes of a person. This indicates that in the northern part of Central Siberia, modern climatic conditions favor the formation of permafrost. § A powerful factor in the preservation of permafrost in Central Siberia is the harsh sharply continental climate. The conservation of permafrost is favored by low average annual temperatures and the peculiarities of the cold period inherent in this climate: low temperatures, low cloudiness, which contributes to night radiation, supercooling of the surface and deep freezing of soils, late formation of snow cover and its low thickness.
Permafrost § Following the change in climatic conditions from the northeast to the southwest, the nature of the permafrost (its thickness, temperature, ice content) also changes. § Continuous (fused) permafrost is widespread in the northern part of Central Siberia. The southern boundary of its distribution runs from Igarka somewhat north of the Lower Tunguska, south of the middle reaches of the Vilyui to the Lena valley near the mouth of the Olekma. The thickness of frozen rocks here is on average 300 - 600 m. On the coast of the Khatanga Bay, it reaches 600 - 800 m, and in the basin of the Markhi River, according to Grave (1968), even 1500 m. The temperature of the frozen layer at a depth of 10 m is -ten. . . -12°C, and ice inclusions - up to 40 - 50% of the rock volume. § To the south, permafrost with islands of taliks is widespread. First, small areas of thawed soil appear among the frozen ground, but gradually their area increases, and the thickness of the permafrost decreases to 25–50 m. The temperature of the frozen rocks rises to -2. . . -1°C. § In the extreme southwest, in the Angara basin, thawed soil already predominates in area. There are only permafrost islands here. These are small areas of permafrost in relief depressions or on the slopes of northern exposure under the cover of peat and mosses. Their thickness in the south is only 5-10 m.
Permafrost distribution pattern (profile) § Changes from north to south upper bound permafrost and thickness of the active layer. It depends on the amount of heat, on the temperature of the frozen soil, on its ice content, on the volume of ice inclusions, on the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the host rocks. Therefore, the thickness of the active layer, increasing as a whole from north to south, depends on the mechanical composition of the rocks, on the nature of the vegetation. § The thawing depth in the north is 20-30 cm in peaty soils, 70-100 cm in clay soils, and 120-160 cm in sands; in the south, respectively, 50 - 80, 150 - 200 and 220 - 530 cm. Thus, in the southern part of Central Siberia, the thickness of the active layer is approximately 2 times greater than in the north.
§ In the area of distribution of permafrost rocks in Central Siberia, underground ice occurs in the form of ice lenses, wedges, veins, hydrolaccoliths over large areas. Particularly large ice lenses and ice wedges are found in the North Siberian Lowland and in the valley of the lower Lena. Some researchers consider them to be buried ice sheets of the glaciation sheet. § However, it has been convincingly proven that ground ice is formed as a result of freezing of supra-permafrost or intra-permafrost water horizons, as well as during repeated freezing of melt water in frost-cut cracks of the Pleistocene and Holocene age. § Ice intrusions - hydrolaccoliths are usually confined to the basins of dried-up lakes, where water accumulates in the thawed soil, and then, when it freezes, they are gradually squeezed out and freeze in the form of an ice dome under a layer of swollen soil. Hydrolaccoliths are especially numerous in the Central Yakut Lowland.
Influence of permafrost on the NTC of Central Siberia § Being a product of a sharply continental climate, permafrost itself has a very significant effect on the climate, increasing its severity and continentality. In winter, practically no heat enters the surface layers of air from the subsoil horizons, and in summer a lot of heat is spent on the thawing of permafrost, so the soil heats up weakly and gives little heat to the surface layers of air. The consequence of this is an intense cooling of the surface on clear summer nights, leading to frosts on the soil, and an increase in daily temperature amplitudes. § Permafrost also affects other components of nature. It serves as a kind of aquiclude, therefore it affects the runoff and relief: it increases the seasonality of surface and underground runoff, hinders deep erosion and promotes lateral erosion within the active layer, slows down karst processes and favors the development of cryogenic landforms throughout Central Siberia. Permafrost causes the formation of a special type of soil - permafrost-taiga. Permafrost is associated with the emergence of specific natural complexes, such as alas. § Permafrost affects the economic activity of the population, complicating the development of the territory. During capital construction, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of permafrost thawing and heaving of soils under construction objects and in case of violation of the vegetation cover during construction work. This forces additional work to be carried out (for example, the construction of houses on piles), which increases the cost and slows down construction. Permafrost makes it difficult to supply water to settlements and industrial enterprises, and requires thermal reclamation in the agricultural development of the territory.
Cryogenic processes and landforms § § § Alasy Bulgunnyakhi (hydrolaccoliths) Heaving hillocks Hilly swamps Stone rings Polygonal soils Solifluction Thermokarst Taliki Naledi Taryn
Rivers § Central Siberia has a well-developed river network. This is due to the significant elevation and different heights of the territory, rock fractures, a long period of continental development, the impervious effect of permafrost, and deep and prolonged seasonal freezing of soils. Permafrost not only prevents moisture from seeping into the ground, but also reduces evaporation due to the low temperature of river and groundwater. All this determines the features of the water balance in Central Siberia - an increase in runoff, and above all the surface component, and a decrease in evaporation compared with similar latitudes of the Russian Plain and Western Siberia. § The runoff coefficient in Central Siberia is 0.65. This is higher than the national average and 2 times higher than in Western Siberia. Hence the high density of the river network and the high water content of the rivers of Central Siberia. The maximum flow (more than 20 l / s / km 2) is characteristic of the Putorana Plateau. § The average density of the river network is 0.2 km / km 2. The density of the river network is different in the western and eastern parts. In the Yenisei basin, it is 0.4 - 0.45 km / km 2, and in the Lena basin - 0.12 - 0.15 km / km 2. In terms of slopes and flow speed, in terms of the structure of valleys, the rivers of Central Siberia occupy an intermediate position between mountainous and flat. § Deeply incised valleys often have a distinct shape, expanding in areas composed of loose sandy-argillaceous rocks, and acquiring a gorge-like character with steep slopes hanging over the water ("cheeks"), in places where traps or limestones emerge.
Features of the rivers of Central Siberia § Most of the basins of the Yenisei and Lena rivers are located in Central Siberia. In addition to them, such large rivers as Olenek, Anabar, Khatanga, Taimyr, Pyasina flow directly into the sea. Many tributaries of the Yenisei and Lena are of considerable length. Four of them (Lower Tunguska, Vilyui, Aldan and Podkamennaya Tunguska) are among the 20 largest rivers in our country. The Angara is a little behind them in length. § The characteristic features of the hydrological regime of the rivers of Central Siberia, along with the high water content, are the exceptional unevenness of the flow, the shortness and power of the spring flood and low water in the winter, the duration of freeze-up and the thickness of ice formations, the freezing of many small rivers to the bottom and the widespread development of icing. All these features are associated with the peculiarities of the country's climatic conditions - with its sharply continental climate. "Rivers are a product of the climate," wrote A. I. Voeikov. § According to the water regime, the rivers of Central Siberia belong to the East Siberian type. The main sources of their nutrition are melted snow and, to a lesser extent, rainwater. The share of groundwater supply is very small due to the wide distribution of permafrost and ranges from 5 to 10% of the annual runoff. Only in the extreme south does it increase to 15-20%. Power sources also determine the uneven intra-annual distribution of runoff. From 70 to 90 - 95% of the annual flow falls on the warm period (four to six months). The main mass of water passes during a short and stormy spring flood. In the south, this occurs at the end of April, in most of the territory - in May, and in the Arctic - at the beginning of June. The snow melts within two to three weeks. Frozen soils do not absorb melt water, which is quickly discharged into rivers.
§ The rise of water in the rivers during the flood period averages 4-6 m. And on the main rivers, where tributaries bring a lot of meltwater, the flood in the lower reaches reaches colossal proportions. In the lower reaches of the Lena, the water rise exceeds 10 m, on the Yenisei - 15 - 18 m, in the lower reaches of the Podkamennaya Tunguska and Kotui - 20 - 25 m, and on the Lower Tunguska - up to 25 - 30 m. high level floodplains on the Central Siberian rivers. § In the summer-autumn period, rains, thawing of permafrost and icing maintain the water level in the rivers, therefore, Central Siberia is characterized not by summer, but by winter low water, when rivers receive poor nutrition only from groundwater. The water level in the rivers noticeably decreases already with the first frosts. The gradual freezing of soils increasingly reduces the flow of groundwater into rivers. The lack of water and the slowdown in the flow of rivers lead to severe hypothermia of river waters and the formation of powerful ice. § The freezing of the Central Siberian rivers occurs in a very peculiar way. Ice first forms not on the surface of the water, but at the bottom, on supercooled pebbles, and then rises to the surface. § Freezing on the rivers of most of the territory occurs in October, and on the southern rivers - in early November. Only the impetuous Angara remains ice-free in some places until December, and sometimes until January. Ice thickness on the rivers reaches 1 - 3 m. Small rivers freeze to the bottom. On many rivers, ice barriers form on the riffles, as a result of which the river turns into a chain of lakes confined to river reaches. If the water in such lakes is saturated with oxygen, then they are "fish tanks", with a lack of oxygen - rotting whirlpools. § Ice drift on the Siberian rivers is a grandiose sight. The river carries huge masses of ice. Enormous ice jams form in the narrowed sections of the river valleys. The ice lifted from the rifts carries pebbles and blocks of traps frozen into it with a volume of 12 - 15 m 3, i.e., weighing more than 30 tons.
Hydrological hazard § Zoning of Siberia according to the integral assessment of hydrological hazard. Assessment of the magnitude of the danger: a - a small magnitude of the danger (less than 5 points), b - the average magnitude of the danger (5 - 6 points), a large magnitude of the danger (more than 5 points). Hazard structure (% of the total): d - hydroclimatic, e - hydrogeological, f - hydroglaciological. § § A genetic classification of the hydrological hazards of Siberia (3 classes: hydro-climatic, hydro-geological, hydro-glaciological, 15 main types of hazards) is proposed. An expert assessment and ranking of hazards for 17 Siberian macrobasins was carried out according to the developed methodology, which includes the following indicators: prevalence, frequency, predictability, damage to the population, economy and landscape, and the possibility of protection. Maps of the prevalence of each hazard were constructed. The final scoring made it possible to rank all the macrobasins according to the magnitude of the integral hydrological hazard and group them. - IG SB RAS.
Lena § Lena is one of the greatest rivers in the world (4400 km, basin area 490 thousand km²). It originates on the western slope of the Baikal Range, at an altitude of 930 m. It flows into the Laptev Sea. The upper reaches of the Lena and a significant part of the basins of its right tributaries are located in the mountainous regions of the Baikal region, Transbaikalia, and the Aldan Highlands. The main part of the left-bank basin is located on the Central Siberian Plateau. The lowest section of the Lena basin is located in its middle and lower reaches.
Ice floes § An extremely common phenomenon, especially in the northern part of Central Siberia, is icing. Ice-covered waters flood ice-covered riverbeds, river floodplains and entire valleys, forming huge ice fields. From year to year, ice forms in the same places. Ice begins to form in December-January, and largest sizes reach in March. At this time, the thickness of ice in the icing can be 3 - 4 m. § The formation of icing is associated with a narrowing of the living section of the river, freezing of alluvial sediments and an increase in the thickness of ice on the surface of the river. Water flows like in an ice pipe, and with increasing pressure it breaks either up - a river ice is formed, or down - it props up groundwater, which rises and pours out through cracks on the surface of the floodplain. This is how ground ice occurs. § Most often, icings form above ice barriers and where the river breaks into branches among vast areas of pebbles. In summer, they gradually melt and serve as an additional source of food for the rivers. Large ice can persist all summer. § On large rivers with thick alluvial deposits, a large open area and a fairly deep occurrence of permafrost, icing does not develop.
Floods on the rivers of Siberia § A technique has been developed for determining the possibility of interruption of channel flows in the winter period (“freezing”) for Siberian basins. It is based on the established relationship between three indicators: the fact of freezing, the presence of a maximum monthly runoff of less than 20% of the annual norm, and the basin area. § The limits of areas with freezing of rivers were determined: in the West Siberian sector - less than 10,000 km 2, in the East Siberian sector - less than 100,000 km 2 (both sectors in the zone of excessive moisture), in the South. Siberian belt - less than 30,000 km 2 (in the zone of insufficient moisture). The natural factors that form the winter regime of river flow are determined. - IG SB RAS.
§ The analysis and generalization of observational data on floods for 14 water posts of the river was carried out. Lena for more than 50 years. The main factors influencing the nature of the formation and existence of spring ice jams on the rivers of the Lena basin are identified. An electronic version of the flooding map of the Lena River valley at different levels of the river has been created. § In the vicinity of the city of Yakutsk, at river levels of 1% probability, the territory of the northern part of Yakutsk (including the Yakutskaya CHPP) is subject to flooding, in the right-bank part of the river, the territory of the valley up to the root bank is subject to flooding, at 75% probability, the flood zone is located along the river ( the residential complex Darkylakh falls into the flood zone). - IPNG SB RAS, IFTPS SB RAS.
Largest rivers § The Lena is the largest river in Central Siberia. Its length reaches 4400 km. In terms of basin area (2490 thousand km 2), it ranks third in Russia, and second in terms of water content, second only to the Yenisei. Its average annual flow near the mouth is about 17,000 m 2 / s, and the annual flow is 536 km 3. The Lena originates on the western slope of the Baikal Range and is a typical mountain river in its upper reaches. Below the confluence of the Vitim and Olekma, the Lena acquires the character of a large flat river. When it flows into the Laptev Sea, it forms the largest delta in Russia with an area of more than 32 thousand km 2. The main tributaries of the Lena within Central Siberia are the Aldan and Vilyui. § The western part of the Central Siberian Plateau is occupied by the Lower Tunguska, Podkamennaya Tunguska and Angara basins. The Lower Tunguska is the largest tributary of the Yenisei in terms of length (2989 km), and the Angara in terms of basin area (740 thousand km 2) and water content (4380 m 3 / s). Due to the regulating influence of Lake Baikal, the Angara differs sharply in its regime from other rivers of Central Siberia. It is characterized by a fairly constant level and uniform flow of water throughout the year.
Inland waters § Lakes. There are fewer lakes in Central Siberia than in Western Siberia, and they are very unevenly distributed. § The North Siberian and Central Yakut lowlands are distinguished by large lakes, where small and shallow thermokarst lakes predominate. § Large lakes in basins of glacial-tectonic origin are located on the Putorana Plateau: Khantai, Kheta, Lama, etc. These lakes - deep, long and narrow - resemble the fjords of Norway. § The largest in Central Siberia is Lake Taimyr, located at the southern foot of the Byrranga Mountains. It occupies a tectonic basin processed by a glacier. The area of the lake is 4560 km 2, the maximum depth is 26 m, and the average is about 3 m.
Inland waters § Groundwater. About 75% of the territory of Central Siberia is occupied by the East Siberian artesian basin. It consists of four basins of the second order: Tunguska, Angaro. Lensky, Khatanga (North Siberian) and Yakutsk. Artesian waters are pressurized. They lie at different depths under the permafrost in bedrock of different ages. Among subpermafrost waters there are fresh, brackish and brines. Generally, salinity increases with depth. The most mineralized waters, which are often brines with a salt content of up to 500–600 g/l, are confined to the saline deposits of the Devonian and Lower Cambrian. § Permafrost hinders the formation and circulation of groundwater, however, in its thickness there are aquifers and lenses within the taliks. Most often, these interpermafrost waters are confined to under-channel and under-lake taliks. The supra-permafrost waters are represented by the ground waters of the active layer. These waters are replenished by atmospheric precipitation and have a mineralization of less than 0.2 - 0.5 g/l of water. In the cold period, the supra-permafrost waters freeze. During the freezing of the aquifer, mounds of heaving and ice are formed.
Soils § Soils in Central Siberia develop mainly on the eluvium of bedrocks, therefore they are stony and gravelly. Over vast expanses, soils are formed under conditions of shallow permafrost. § In the far north, arctotundra soils are widespread here, which are replaced by tundra gley and tundra podburs. § Specific taiga-permafrost soils are formed in the forest zone. They are not traced at all either in the structure of the soil profile or in chemical composition traces of the podzol formation process characteristic of the taiga. This is due to the fact that permafrost creates a non-leaching soil regime and prevents the removal of chemical elements beyond the soil profile. The taiga-permafrost soils are characterized by numerous traces of gleying in the soil profile, especially in its lower part, as a result of waterlogging of soils and their weak aeration. Under the influence of permafrost phenomena, there is a constant mixing of the soil mass, therefore, taiga-permafrost soils are characterized by a weak differentiation of the profile, the absence of clear genetic horizons.
Soils § The taiga-permafrost soils of Central Siberia are represented by three subtypes. The most widespread are taiga-permafrost acidic soils, which form on carbonate-free rocks. On carbonate rocks and traps, taiga-permafrost neutral (pale) soils develop. During the chemical weathering of these rocks, a significant amount of bases enters the soil, which ensures the neutralization acid reaction soil solution. In a neutral environment, the mobility of humic substances decreases, the humus content reaches 6–7%, and biogenic accumulation of chemical elements occurs. These are the richest soils of the Central Siberian taiga. For the northern part of the taiga, where the thickness of the active layer is especially small, and waterlogging of the soil is extremely high, taiga-gley-frozen soils are most characteristic. Podburs are common in the western part of Central Siberia, where the surface is more dissected and the substrate is gravelly, and therefore the ice content of the frozen strata is less. § In the south, where permafrost occupies small areas, soddy-podzolic soils are common. In the Central Yakut lowland, due to the absence of a leaching regime, strong warming in summer, and the pulling of moisture to the surface, soils of the saline series are formed: solods, solonetzes and solonchaks (mainly carbonate).
Vegetation § Northern part Central Siberia is occupied by tundra vegetation from spotted arctic tundra to shrubby southern dwarf-willow tundra. To the south, peculiar conditions for the development of vegetation create a contrasting combination of low-temperature waterlogged soils and a relatively warm surface layer of air, a long period of winter dormancy and a relatively short warm period. A rather limited number of plant species have adapted to the harsh conditions of nature. Of the tree species, this species is Dahurian larch - a species that is very undemanding to heat and soil, adapted to the conditions of shallow permafrost and, at the same time, content with an extremely low amount of precipitation. The dominance of light coniferous larch forests is the most characteristic feature of the vegetation cover of Central Siberia. In the southern part of the country, pine joins the larch. In the western Yenisei part, where there is more precipitation and thicker snow cover, dark coniferous taiga is common. § The northernmost distribution of forests in Central Siberia on the globe is associated with high summer temperatures and significant dryness of the air, due to the sharp continentality of the climate. At 300 - 500 km to the north than in Western Siberia, forests come here. In Taimyr, woody vegetation occurs near 72° 50′ N. sh. . § In central Yakutia, near 60° N. sh. in the neighborhood of swampy forests there are areas of real steppes and steppe solonchaks. They are a relic of the xerothermal period and are currently preserved due to warm, non-latitude summers, low rainfall, and the presence of permafrost, which prevent soil leaching and removal of salts from them.
Dahurian larch § Dahurian larch - Larix dahurica. It differs well from the Siberian one in cones; they are smaller, 1.5-2.5 cm long, almost spherical, shiny scales, straight or notched at the ends, wide-opening; covering scales are visible at the base of the cone. The needles are often bluish or bluish. In terms of biological and ecological features, it is similar to Siberian larch.
Dahurian larch § Dahurian larch occupies the whole of Eastern Siberia and the Far East. northern border from the mouth of the river Yenisei along the border with the tundra goes to the mouth of the river. Anadyr and Northern Kamchatka; western border coincides with the eastern border of Siberian larch - from the mouth of the Yenisei to Lake Baikal; the southern border passes outside the Russian Federation. In the tundra and in the mountains, it gives dwarf forms.
Fauna § The difference between the fauna of Central Siberia and the West Siberian one is due to faunistic and ecological differences between the two neighboring physical and geographical countries. The Yenisei is an important zoogeographic boundary, which many East Siberian species do not cross. The fauna of Central Siberia is characterized by greater antiquity than the fauna of Western Siberia. § The complex of taiga animals is especially widely represented here. In Central Siberia, a number of European-Siberian species are absent (marten, mink, hare, hedgehog, etc.), but East Siberian species appear: eastern elk, bighorn sheep, musk deer, northern pika, a number of species of shrews, capercaillie, black crow, killer whale, etc. § There is a deep penetration into the taiga of Central Yakutia of animals and birds that usually live in the steppes: long-tailed ground squirrel, black-capped marmot, field lark, rock pigeon, etc. numbers within it. The animal population of the tundra is characterized by a significant similarity with the animals of the West Siberian tundra.
North American musk oxen successfully took root in the Russian tundra § In the summer of 1974, ten Canadian musk oxen arrived, and in the summer of 1975, twenty American musk oxen. § An assessment of the number of musk oxen in Taimyr was carried out annually from 1974 to 1995. From the moment of receiving the first offspring in 1978–1980, the increase in the number of musk oxen has been on the rise. In 1984, the population reached 100 heads, in 1989 - about 300, in 1990 there were already more than 400. By the end of the 20-year period of acclimatization (1974 - 1994), the population size was 1000 - 1050 individuals.
Distinctive features of the fauna of Central Siberia § The animal population of Central Siberia is distinguished by some specific features due to the peculiarities of its nature: cold long winters, the spread of permafrost, rocky soils and rugged relief. § The severity of winter conditions is associated with the abundance of fur animals among animals with thick, fluffy and silky fur, which is especially highly valued: arctic fox, sable, ermine, squirrel, Siberian weasel, etc. § An increase in the number and species diversity of ungulates is associated with the ruggedness of the relief and rocky soil in Central Siberia: reindeer, elk, bighorn sheep, musk deer. § Permafrost limits the distribution of amphibians, reptiles and worms. § In cold waters, the number of fish decreases. § The sharp continentality of the climate contributes to a greater movement of tundra animals to the south in winter and taiga animals to the north in summer.
Natural zones § § § Despite the vast extent of the territory of Central Siberia along the meridian, the set of natural zones is small: tundra, forest-tundra and taiga. The taiga, which occupies about 70% of the area, and the tundra are most fully represented. The continentality of the climate contributes to the displacement of the boundaries of natural zones to the north in comparison with western Siberia. However, this can be clearly seen only in the northern part of the country, where not only the forest-tundra, but also the forest zone sets beyond 70 ° N. sh. The southern border of the forest zone is shifted to the south due to the altitude position of the territory (above 450 - 500 m). At the foot of the V. Sayan, at latitudes where steppes are located in Western Siberia, taiga forests with islands of forest-steppes are widespread.
Provinces of Central Siberia § Within the taiga zone of Central Siberia, intrazonal differences associated with the nature of the lithogenic base are clearly traced. They determine the characteristics of the nature of each of the provinces that have become isolated within the country. § 12 provinces are distinguished § 2 of them are located within the tundra, 1 - forest tundra, the rest are taiga provinces
Europe is called the part of the world that lies in the western part of the Eurasian continent in the Northern Hemisphere, and together with Asia forms a single continent. Its area is 10 million km 2, about 20% of the total population of the Earth (743 million people) lives here. Europe is the largest economic, historical and political center of great importance throughout the world.
Geographical position
Europe is washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, its coastline is notable for its significant indentation, the area of its islands is 730 thousand km 2, ¼ of the entire area is occupied by peninsulas: Kola, Apennine, Balkan, Iberian, Scandinavian, etc. The border between Europe and Asia conditionally passes along the east coast Ural mountains, r Emba, the Caspian Sea. Kumo-Manych depression and the mouth of the Don.
Main geographical features
The average surface height is 300 meters, the highest point is Mount Elbrus (5642 m, the Caucasus Mountains in Russia), the lowest is -27 m (Caspian Sea). Most of the territory is occupied by plains (East European, Lower and Middle Danube, Central European), 17% of the surface is mountains and plateaus (Urals, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Alps, Scandinavian Mountains, Crimean Mountains, mountains of the Balkan Peninsula), Iceland and the islands of the Mediterranean are located in the zone of seismic activity.
The climate of most of the territory is temperate (the western part is temperate oceanic, the eastern part is temperate continental), the northern islands lie in the arctic and subarctic climatic zones, southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate, the Caspian lowland is semi-desert.
The amount of water flow in Europe is about 295 mm, this is the second largest in the world after South America, however, due to the much smaller area of the territory, the volume of water flow (2850 km 3) exceeds the readings of Africa and Antarctica. Water resources distributed unevenly across Europe, runoff inland waters decreases from north to south and from west to east. Most of the rivers belong to the basin of the seas of the Atlantic Ocean, a smaller part - to the basin of the Arctic Ocean and the basin of the internal flow of the Caspian Sea. The largest rivers in Europe are located mainly in Russia and Eastern Europe, there are also large rivers in Western Europe. The largest rivers: Volga, Kama, Oka, Danube, Ural, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Rhine, Elbe, Vistula, Tahoe, Loire, Oder, Neman. The lakes of Europe are of tectonic origin, which determines their considerable depth, elongated shape and heavily indented coastline, these are flat lakes Ladoga, Onega, Vattern, Imandra, Balaton, mountain lakes - Geneva, Como, Garda.
In accordance with the laws of latitudinal zonality, the entire territory of Europe is located in various natural zones: the extreme north is the zone of arctic deserts, then comes the tundra and forest tundra, the zone of deciduous and mixed forests, forest-steppe, steppe, subtropical Mediterranean forest vegetation and shrubs, the extreme south is the zone of semi-deserts .
European countries
The territory of Europe is divided between 43 independent states officially recognized by the UN, there are also 6 officially unrecognized republics (Kosovo, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, LPR, DPR) and 7 dependent territories (in the Arctic and Atlantic oceans). 6 states due to their very small size belong to the so-called microstates: the Vatican, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino. Partially in Europe are the territories of such states as Russia - 22%, Kazakhstan - 14%, Azerbaijan - 10%, Georgia - 5%, Turkey - 4%. 28 states of Europe are united in the European Union (EU) national association, have a common euro currency, common economic and political views. According to cultural, geographical and political characteristics, the entire territory of Europe is conditionally divided into Western, Eastern, Northern, Southern and Central.
List of countries in Europe
Major European countries:
(with detailed description)
Nature
Nature, plants and animals of Europe
The presence on the territory of Europe of several natural and climatic zones causes a rich and diverse flora and fauna, which, under the influence of human economic activity, have undergone a number of changes, which has led to a decrease in their biodiversity and even to the complete disappearance of some species...
In the Far North, in the Arctic climate, mosses, lichens, polar buttercups, and poppies grow. Dwarf birches, willows, and alders appear in the tundra. To the south of the tundra are vast expanses of taiga, which is characterized by the growth of such typical coniferous trees like cedar, spruce, fir, larch. Due to the temperate climate zone prevailing in most of Europe, large areas are occupied by huge forests of deciduous and mixed trees (aspen, birch, maple, oak, fir, hornbeam). Oak forests, steppe grasses, cereals, shrubs grow in the zone of steppes and forest-steppes: feather grass, irises, steppe hyacinths, blackthorn, steppe cherry, dereza. The Black Sea subtropics are characterized by the predominance of forests of fluffy oak, juniper, boxwood, and black alder. Southern Europe is characterized by subtropical vegetation, there are palm trees and creepers, olives, grapes, citrus fruits, magnolias, cypresses grow.
The foothills of the mountains (Alps, Caucasian, Crimean) are characterized by the growth of coniferous trees, for example, such as relic Caucasian plants: boxwood, chestnut, Eldar and Pitsunda pines. In the Alps, pines and spruces give way to subalpine tall grass meadows; on the peaks there are alpine meadows that amaze with the beauty of their emerald greenery.
In the northern latitudes (subarctic, tundra, taiga), where the influence of man on the surrounding nature is manifested to a lesser extent, there are more predators: polar bears, wolves, arctic foxes. Reindeer, polar hares, walruses, seals live there. Red deer, brown bears, lynxes and wolverines, sables and ermines are still found in the Russian taiga, wood grouses, hazel grouses, black grouses, woodpeckers, and nutcrackers live here.
Europe is a highly urbanized and industrialized region, therefore large mammals practically absent here, the largest inhabitants of European forests are deer and fallow deer, wild boars, chamois still live in the Alps, Carpathians and the Iberian Peninsula, mouflons are found on the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, Poland and Belarus are famous for their relic animals from the genus bison bison , which are listed in the Red Book and live exclusively in nature reserves. The lower tiers of deciduous and mixed forests are inhabited by foxes, hares, badgers, ferrets, weasels, and squirrels. Beavers, otters, muskrats and nutria live on the banks of rivers and reservoirs. Characteristic inhabitants of the semi-desert zone: gazelles, jackals, a large number of small rodents, snakes.
Climatic conditions
Seasons, weather and climate of European countries
Europe is located in four climatic zones: arctic (low temperatures, in summer no higher than +5 С 0, precipitation - 400 mm / year), subarctic (mild maritime climate, January t - +1, -3 °, July - +10 °, the predominance of cloudy days with fogs, precipitation - 1000 mm / year), moderate (marine - cool summers, mild winters, and continental - long winters, cool summers) and subtropical (hot summers, mild winters) ...
The climate of most of Europe belongs to the temperate climate zone, the west is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. air masses, east - continental, south - Mediterranean air masses from the tropics, the north is exposed to the invasion of arctic air. The territory of Europe has sufficient moisture, precipitation (mainly in the form of rain) is distributed unevenly, their maximum (1000-2000 mm) falls on Scandinavia, the British Isles, the slopes of the Alps and the Apennines, a minimum of 400 mm in the east of the Balkan Peninsula and the southeast of the Pyrenees .
The peoples of Europe: culture and traditions
The population living in Europe (770 million people) is diverse and ethnically diverse. In total, there are 87 nationalities, of which 33 are the national majority in any single independent state, 54 are a minority (105 million or 14% of the total population of Europe) ...
In Europe, there are 8 groups of peoples, whose number exceeds 30 million, together they represent 460 million people, which is 63% of the total European population:
- Russians of the European part (90 million);
- Germans (82 million);
- French (65 million);
- British (55-61 million);
- Italians (59 million);
- Spaniards (46 million);
- Ukrainians (46 million);
- Poles (38 million).
About 25 million Europeans (3%) are members of the diaspora of non-European origin, the EU population (approximately 500 million people) is 2/3 of the total population of Europe.
The political and geographical position of any country (for example, the USA or some other) according to the plan: 1) Geographical position. Leveleconomic development of neighboring countries. Membership of neighboring countries to economic and political associations, blocs.
2) The transport and geographical position of the country. Position concerning world transport routes, markets for raw materials and sales of products.
3) Position relative to the "hot spots" of the planet. Participation in military conflicts in other countries of the world.
4) Change in GWP over time.
1. From the listed subjects of the Russian Federation, underline those related to Western Siberia:a). Kemerovo region. b). Vologda region; c) Karachay-Cherkess region; d) Republic of Udmurtia; e). Altai region; e). Yamalo-Nenets Aut. env; g). Nizhny Novgorod region; h). R-ka Altai; i). Kurgan region; to). Novosibirsk region; k). Tver region; m). Omsk region; m) Republic of Komi; o). Chelyabinsk region; n). Rostov region; r). Tula region; With). Tyumen region; t). Altai Territory; y). Khanty-Mansiysk author. env; f). Tomsk region; h). Chukotsky author. env.
2. From the proposed statements, choose the correct ones:
The climate in the Caucasus is mild.
The climate in the Volga region is very cold.
The transport network is most well developed in the south of Western Siberia.
The transport network is most well developed in the north of Western Siberia.
In the west, Russia borders on Ukraine.
The Volga region has access to the sea.
Western Siberia is located to the east than the Ural economic region.
Kaliningrad region the most western region in Russia.
Northwestern Russia has the richest reserves of fuel minerals.
There is no oil in Western Siberia.
In the west, the Far East borders on Eastern Siberia
The region of Yakutia is the largest subject of the Russian Federation.
In the Koryak Aut. The district has one of the lowest population density in Russia.
3. From the proposed options, make a description of the economic and geographical position of the Volga region.
a). The climate is rather harsh.
b). The transport network is well developed.
c). The transport network is most well developed in the west.
d). Has access to the state border with Ukraine.
e). Has access to the Northern Sea Route.
e). It has access to the state border with Kazakhstan.
g). In the east it borders on the Urals.
h). Low population density.
i). The climate is quite mild.
j). In the east it borders on Eastern Siberia.
l). It borders on Central Russia.
m). It is a link between Asian and European Russia.
4. Large deposits of iron ore in Russia are located
1) in the Belgorod region and in Karelia 2) in the Vologda region and in the Volga region
3) in the Far East 4) in the Komi Republic
5. The largest number of hydroelectric power plants built:
a) On the Yenisei; b). On the Angara; c) On the Volga; d) On the Ob.
7. Which of the listed nationalities live on the territory of Western Siberia?
a) Udmurts; b) Chukchi; c) debts; d). Mansi; e) Shors; e) Adyghe; g) Saami; h). Kabardians; i). Altaians; j). Nenets; k). Selkups; m). Tatars; m) Bashkirs; o). Russians.
8. From the list, select the cities of millionaires of the Volga and Central Russia:
a) Moscow; b) Novosibirsk; c). Ufa; d). Omsk; e) Samara; e) Nizhny Novgorod; g). Chelyabinsk; h). Yekaterinburg; i). Kazan; j). Rostov-on-Don; l). Perm.
9. Population of Russia at the present time (million people):
a).30.2; b).125.2; c).145.4; d).292.5.
10. Currently, the natural movement of the population is characterized by:
a). Natural increase; b). Natural decline.
11. In Russia, the population prevails:
a). Male; b). Feminine.
13. What is the fuel and energy complex? ___________________
14. The operation of which power plants is very simple and requires minimal labor costs?
a). Thermal; b). Hydraulic; c). Atomic.
15. What type of transport is the most expensive?
a). Aviation; b). Railway; c). Automobile.
16. Define the region of Russia according to its brief description.
This region has access to two seas and borders on land with one of the foreign countries. Most of the territory is occupied by lowland, in the south there are young high mountains. A feature of the climate is a short cold period of the year. The main wealth of the region is agro-climatic and recreational resources.
1 Position of the country in relation to other countries. The level of economic development of neighboring countries
2 Relationship to global transport routes, markets for raw materials and sales of products
3 Position in relation to the hot spots of the planet
4 Current political situation, domestic and foreign policy (overall assessment)
CLASSIFICATION OF COUNTRIES BY GEOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Table 2. Classification of countries by geography.
Table 3. Inland countries (landlocked)
| Foreign Europe | Overseas Asia | Africa |
| 1. Andorra | 1. Afghanistan | 1. Botswana |
| 2. Austria | 2. Butane | 2. Burkina Faso |
| 3. Hungary | 3. Laos | 3. Burundi |
| 4. Luxembourg | 4. Mongolia | 4. Zambia |
| 5. Liechtenstein | 5. Nepal | 5. Zimbabwe |
| 6. Macedonia | 6. Lesotho | |
| 7. Slovenia | CIS | 7. Malawi |
| 8. Czech Republic | 8. Mali | |
| 9. Slovakia | 1. Moldova * | 9. Niger |
| 10. Switzerland | 2. Armenia | 10. Rwanda |
| 3. Kazakhstan | 11. Swaziland | |
| America | 4. Uzbekistan | 12. Uganda |
| 5. Kyrgyzstan | 13. CAR | |
| 1. Bolivia | 6. Tajikistan | 14. Chad |
| 2. Paraguay | 7. Turkmenistan | 15. Ethiopia |
| * Moldova has a small section of the coast (less than 500 m) at the mouth of the Danube, near the village of Giurgiulesti. At the end of 1996, she started building a commercial port there. But this requires at least another 4.5 - 5 km of coastline on the Danube. Moldova has been unsuccessfully asking Ukraine for several years to cede such a site to it. | ||
The geographical position of the country has a significant impact on the level of its economic development. Most inland non-European countries lag behind in their economic development, because lack of access to the sea complicates their foreign economic activity.
Classification of countries can also be carried out by area, population and other indicators.
Table 4. Seven largest countries world (area over 3 million km 2)Tasks and tests on the topic "Classification of countries by geography"
- Countries of the world - Population of the Earth Grade 7
Lessons: 6 Assignments: 9
- The Age of Discovery
Lessons: 8 Assignments: 10 Tests: 2
- Geographic knowledge in ancient Europe - Development of geographical knowledge about the Earth Grade 5
Lessons: 2 Assignments: 6 Tests: 1
- Modern geographical research - Development of geographical knowledge about the Earth Grade 5
Lessons: 7 Assignments: 7 Tests: 1
- Geographical coordinates - Images of the earth's surface and their use Grade 5
Lessons: 6 Assignments: 8 Tests: 1
Leading ideas: level of economic and social development countries are largely determined by its geographical location and history of development; the diversity of the modern political map of the world - a system that is in constant development and whose elements are interconnected.
Basic concepts: Territory and border of the state, economic zone, sovereign state, dependent territories, republic (presidential and parliamentary), monarchy (absolute, including theocratic, constitutional), federal and unitary state, confederation, gross domestic product (GDP), human index development (HDI), developed countries, G7 countries of the West, developing countries, NIS countries, key countries, oil exporting countries, least developed countries; political geography, geopolitics, GWP of a country (region), UN, NATO, EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, APR, OPEC.
Skills: Be able to classify countries according to various criteria, give a brief description of groups and subgroups of countries in the modern world, assess the political and geographical position of countries according to the plan, identify positive and negative features, note the change in GWP over time, use the most important economic and social indicators to characterize (GDP, GDP per capita, human development index, etc.) of the country. Identify the most important changes on the political map of the world, explain the causes and predict the consequences of such changes.
Loading...