Sun spots

The Sun is the only one of all the stars that we see not as a sparkling point, but as a shining disk. Thanks to this, astronomers are able to study various details on its surface.

What is it sunspots?

Sunspots are far from stable formations. They arise, develop and disappear, and new ones appear to replace those that have disappeared. Occasionally giant spots form. Thus, in April 1947, a complex spot was observed on the Sun: its area exceeded the surface area of ​​the globe by 350 times! It was clearly visible to the naked eye 1.

Sun spots

Such large spots on the Sun have been noticed since ancient times. In the Nikon Chronicle for 1365 one can find a mention of how our ancestors in Rus' saw “dark spots, like nails” on the Sun through the smoke of forest fires.

Appearing on the eastern (left) edge of the Sun, moving along its disk from left to right and disappearing behind the western (right) edge of the daylight, sunspots provide an excellent opportunity not only to verify the rotation of the Sun around its axis, but also to determine the period of this rotation (more precisely, it determined by the Doppler shift of spectral lines). Measurements showed: the period of rotation of the Sun at the equator is 25.38 days (relative to an observer on a moving Earth - 27.3 days), in mid-latitudes - 27 days and at the poles about 35 days. Thus, the Sun rotates faster at the equator than at the poles. Zone rotation the luminary indicates its gaseous state. The central part of the large spot looks completely black in a telescope. But the spots only appear dark because we observe them against the background of a bright photosphere. If the spot could be examined separately, we would see that it glows stronger than an electric arc, since its temperature is about 4,500 K, that is, 1,500 K less than the temperature of the photosphere. A medium-sized sunspot against the night sky would appear as bright as the Moon at full moon. Only the spots emit not yellow, but reddish light.

Typically, the dark core of a large spot is surrounded by a gray penumbra, consisting of light radial fibers located on a dark background. This entire structure is clearly visible even with a small telescope.

Sun spots

Back in 1774, Scottish astronomer Alexander Wilson (1714-1786), observing spots at the edge of the solar disk, concluded that large spots were depressions in the photosphere. Subsequent calculations showed that the “bottom” of the spot lies below the level of the photosphere by an average of 700 km. In a word, spots are giant funnels in the photosphere.

Around the spots in the hydrogen rays the vortex structure of the chromosphere is clearly visible. This vortex structure indicates the existence of violent gas movements around the spot. The same pattern is created by iron filings poured onto a sheet of cardboard if a magnet is placed under them. This similarity led the American astronomer George Hale (1868-1938) to suspect that sunspots are huge magnets.

Hale knew that spectral lines are split if the emitting gas is in a magnetic field (the so-called Zeeman splitting). And when the astronomer compared the amount of splitting observed in the spectrum of sunspots with the results of laboratory experiments With gas in a magnetic field, he discovered that the magnetic fields of the spots are thousands of times higher than the induction of the earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field strength at the Earth's surface is about 0.5 oersted. And in sunspots it is always more than 1500 oersteds - sometimes reaches 5000 oersteds!

The discovery of the magnetic nature of sunspots is one of the most important discoveries in astrophysics at the beginning of the 20th century. For the first time it was established that not only our Earth, but also other celestial bodies have magnetic properties. The sun came to the fore in this regard. Only our planet has a constant dipole magnetic field with two poles, and the magnetic field of the Sun has a complex structure, and what’s more, it “turns over”, that is, it changes its sign, or polarity. And although sunspots are very strong magnets, the total magnetic field of the Sun rarely exceeds 1 oersted, which is several times the average field of the Earth.

Strong magnetic field in a bipolar sunspot group

The strong magnetic field of the sunspots is precisely the reason for their low temperature. After all, the field creates an insulating layer under the sunspot and, thanks to this, sharply slows down the convection process - reduces the flow of energy from the depths of the star.

Large spots prefer to appear in pairs. Each such pair is located almost parallel to the solar equator. The leading, or head, spot usually moves a little faster than the trailing (tail) spot. Therefore, during the first few days the spots move away from each other. At the same time, the size of the spots increases.

Often, a “chain” of small spots appears in between the two main spots. Once this happens, the tail spot may undergo rapid disintegration and disappear. Only the leading spot remains, which decreases more slowly and lives on average 4 times longer than its companion. A similar development process is characteristic of almost every large group sunspots. Most spots last only a few days (even a few hours!), while others last for several months.

The spots, the diameter of which reaches 40-50 thousand km, can be seen through a filter (densely smoked glass) with the naked eye.

What are solar flares?

On September 1, 1859, two English astronomers - Richard Carrington and S. Hodgson, independently observing the Sun in white light, saw something like lightning flash suddenly among one group of sunspots. This was the first observation of a new, still unknown phenomenon on the Sun; it was later called a solar flare.

What is a solar flare? In short, this is a powerful explosion on the Sun, as a result of which a colossal amount of energy accumulated in a limited volume of the solar atmosphere is quickly released.

Most often, flares occur in neutral areas located between large spots of opposite polarity. Typically, the development of a flare begins with a sudden increase in the brightness of the flare area - an area of ​​\u200b\u200bbrighter, and therefore hotter, photosphere. Then a catastrophic explosion occurs, during which the solar plasma heats up to 40-100 million K. This manifests itself in a multiple increase in the short-wave radiation of the Sun (ultraviolet and x-rays), as well as in an intensification of the “radio voice” of the daylight and in the emission of accelerated solar corpuscles (particles) . And some of the most powerful flares even generate solar cosmic rays, the protons of which reach a speed equal to half the speed of light. Such particles have deadly energy. They are capable of almost unhindered penetration into a spacecraft and destroy the cells of a living organism. Therefore, solar cosmic rays can pose a serious danger to a crew caught in a sudden flash during a flight.

Thus, solar flares emit radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves and in the form of particles of matter. The amplification of electromagnetic radiation occurs in a wide range of wavelengths - from hard X-rays and gamma rays to kilometer-long radio waves. In this case, the total flux of visible radiation always remains constant to within a fraction of a percent. Weak flares on the Sun almost always occur, and large ones occur once every few months. But during the years of maximum solar activity, large solar flares occur several times a month. Typically a small flash lasts 5-10 minutes; the most powerful - several hours. During this time, a cloud of plasma weighing up to 10 billion tons is ejected into the near-solar space and energy is released equivalent to the explosion of tens or even hundreds of millions of hydrogen bombs! However, the power of even the largest flares does not exceed hundredths of a percent of the power of the total radiation of the Sun. Therefore, during a flare there is no noticeable increase in the luminosity of our daylight.

During the flight of the first crew on the American orbital station Skylab (May-June 1973), it was possible to photograph a flash in the light of iron vapor at a temperature of 17 million K, which should be hotter than in the center of a solar thermonuclear reactor. And in last years Gamma radiation pulses were recorded from several flares.

Such impulses probably owe their origin to annihilation electron-positron pairs. The positron, as is known, is the antiparticle of the electron. It has the same mass as an electron, but is endowed with the opposite electrical charge. When an electron and a positron collide, as can happen in solar flares, they are immediately destroyed, turning into two photons of gamma rays.

Like any heated body, the Sun continuously emits radio waves. Thermal radio emission from the quiet sun, when there are no spots or flashes on it, it constantly comes from the chromosphere at millimeter and centimeter waves, and from the corona at meter waves. But as soon as large spots appear, a flare occurs, strong radio waves arise against the background of calm radio emission. radio bursts... And then the radio emission of the Sun increases abruptly by thousands, or even millions of times!

The physical processes leading to solar flares are very complex and still poorly understood. However, the very fact that solar flares appear almost exclusively in large groups of sunspots indicates that flares are related to strong magnetic fields on the Sun. And the flare is, apparently, nothing more than a colossal explosion caused by the sudden compression of solar plasma under the pressure of a strong magnetic field. It is the energy of magnetic fields, somehow released, that gives rise to a solar flare.

Radiation from solar flares often reaches our planet, having a strong impact on the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere (ionosphere). They also lead to the emergence of magnetic storms and auroras, but more on that in the future.

Rhythms of the Sun

In 1826, a German amateur astronomer, pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe (1789-1875) from Dessau, began systematic observations and sketches of sunspots. No, he did not intend to study the Sun at all - he was interested in something completely different. At that time it was thought that an unknown planet was moving between the Sun and Mercury. And since it was impossible to see it close to the bright star, Schwabe decided to observe everything that was visible on the solar disk. After all, if such a planet really exists, then sooner or later it will certainly pass across the disk of the Sun in the form of a small black circle or dot. And then she will finally be “caught”!

However, Schwabe, in his own words, “went in search of his father’s donkeys and found the kingdom.” In 1851, in the book “Cosmos” by Alexander Humboldt (1769-1859), the results of Schwabe’s observations were published, from which it followed that the number of sunspots increases and decreases quite regularly over a 10-year period. This periodicity in the change in the number of sunspots, later called 11-year cycle of solar activity, was discovered by Heinrich Schwabe in 1843. Subsequent observations confirmed this discovery, and the Swiss astronomer Rudolf Wolf (1816-1893) clarified that the maxima in the number of sunspots repeat on average every 11.1 years.

So, the number of spots varies from day to day and from year to year. To judge the degree of solar activity based on sunspot counts, in 1848 Wolf introduced the concept of the relative number of sunspots, or the so-called Wolf numbers. If we denote by g the number of groups of spots, and by f the total number of spots, then the Wolf number - W - is expressed by the formula:

This number, which determines the measure of sunspot activity of the Sun, takes into account both the number of groups of sunspots and the number of sunspots themselves observed on a particular day. Moreover, each group is equal to ten units, and each spot is taken as a unit. The total score for the day - the relative Wolf number - is the sum of these numbers. Let's say that we observe 23 spots on the Sun, which form three groups. Then the Wolf number in our example will be: W = 10 3 + 23 = 53. During periods of minimum solar activity, when there is not a single spot on the Sun, it turns to zero. If there is only one spot on the Sun, then the Wolf number will be equal to 11, and on days of maximum solar activity it is sometimes more than 200.

The curve of the average monthly number of sunspots clearly shows the nature of changes in solar activity. Such data is available from 1749 to the present. Averaging done over 200 years determined the period of change of sunspots to be 11.2 years. True, over the past 60 years, the sunspot activity of our daylight has accelerated somewhat and this period has decreased to 10.5 years. In addition, its duration varies noticeably from cycle to cycle. Therefore, we should talk not about the periodicity of solar activity, but about cyclicity. The eleven year cycle is most important feature our Sun.

With his discovery of the magnetic field of sunspots in 1908, George Hale also discovered the law of alternation of their polarity. We have already said that in the developed group there are two large spots - two large magnets. They have opposite polarity. The sequence of polarities in the northern and southern hemispheres of the Sun is also always opposite. If in the northern hemisphere the leading (head) sunspot has, for example, northern polarity, and the trailing (tail) sunspot has southern polarity, then in the southern hemisphere of the daylight the picture will be the opposite: the leading sunspot has southern polarity, and the trailing sunspot has northern polarity. But the most remarkable thing is that in the next 11-year cycle, the polarities of all spots in groups in both hemispheres of the Sun change to the opposite, and with the onset of a new cycle they return to their original state. Thus, solar magnetic cycle is approximately 22 years old. Therefore, many solar astronomers consider the main 22-year cycle of solar activity, associated with a change in the polarity of the magnetic field in sunspots.

It has long been established that in time with the change in the number of spots on the Sun, the areas of flare sites and the power of solar flares change. These and other phenomena that occur V atmosphere of the Sun, now commonly called solar activity. Its most accessible elements for observation are large groups of sunspots.

Now it’s time to answer perhaps the most intriguing question: “Where does solar activity come from and how can its features be explained?”

Since the determining factor in solar activity is the magnetic field, the emergence and development of a bipolar group of sunspots - an active region on the Sun - can be represented as the result of the gradual ascent into the solar atmosphere of a huge magnetic rope or tube, which emerges from one spot and, forming an arch, enters another spot. At the point where the tube leaves the photosphere, a spot appears with one polarity of the magnetic field, and where it reenters the photosphere - with the opposite polarity. After some time, this magnetic tube collapses, and the remnants of the magnetic rope sink back under the photosphere and the active region on the Sun disappears. In this case, part of the magnetic field lines goes into the chromosphere and the solar corona. Here the magnetic field sort of orders the moving plasma, as a result of which solar matter moves along the magnetic field lines. This gives the crown a radiant appearance. The fact that active regions on the Sun are determined by magnetic flux tubes is no longer in doubt among scientists. Magnetohydrodynamic effects also explain the change in field polarity in bipolar groups of sunspots. But these are only the first steps towards building a scientifically based theory that can explain all the observed features of the activity of the great luminary.

Average annual Wolf numbers from 1947 to 2001

Photosphere of the Sun

Explanation of the appearance of bipolar magnetic regions on the Sun. A huge magnetic tube rises from the convective zone into the solar atmosphere

So, on the Sun there is an eternal struggle between the pressure forces of hot gas and monstrous gravity. And entangled magnetic fields stand in the way of radiation. Spots appear and collapse in their networks. High-temperature plasma flies up or slides down from the corona along magnetic force lines. Where else can you find something like this?! Only on other stars, but they are terribly far from us! And only on the Sun can we observe this eternal struggle of the forces of nature, which has been going on for 5 billion years. And only gravity will win in it!

"Echo" of solar flares

On February 23, 1956, the Sun Service stations noted a powerful flare on the daylight. In an explosion of unprecedented power, giant clouds of hot plasma were thrown into the circumsolar space - each many times larger than the Earth! And at a speed of more than 1000 km/s they rushed towards our planet. The first echoes of this catastrophe quickly reached us across the cosmic abyss. Approximately 8.5 minutes after the start of the flare, a greatly increased flow of ultraviolet and X-rays reached the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere - the ionosphere, intensifying its heating and ionization. This led to a sharp deterioration and even temporary cessation of radio communications on short waves, because instead of being reflected from the ionosphere, as from a screen, they began to be intensively absorbed by it...

Change in magnetic polarity of sunspots

Sometimes, with very strong flares, radio interference lasts for several days in a row, until the restless star “returns to normal.” The dependence can be traced here so clearly that the level of solar activity can be judged by the frequency of such interference. But the main disturbances caused on Earth by the flare activity of the star are ahead.

Following short-wave radiation (ultraviolet and x-rays), a stream of high-energy solar cosmic rays reaches our planet. True, the magnetic shell of the Earth quite reliably protects us from these deadly rays. But for astronauts working in outer space, they pose a very serious danger: radiation exposure can easily exceed the permissible dose. That is why about 40 observatories around the world constantly participate in the Sun Patrol Service - they conduct continuous observations of the flare activity of the daylight.

Further development of geophysical phenomena on Earth can be expected a day or two days after the outbreak. This is exactly the time - 30-50 hours - required for the plasma clouds to reach the earth's “neighborhoods”. After all, a solar flare is something like a cosmic gun that shoots corpuscles - particles of solar matter: electrons, protons (nuclei of hydrogen atoms), alpha particles (nuclei of helium atoms) into interplanetary space. The mass of corpuscles erupted by the flare in February 1956 amounted to billions of tons!

As soon as the clouds of solar particles collided with the Earth, compass needles began to sweep, and the night sky above the planet was decorated with multi-colored flashes of the aurora. Heart attacks have increased sharply among patients, and the number of road accidents has increased.

Types of impacts of a solar flare on Earth

What about magnetic storms, auroras... Under the pressure of gigantic corpuscular clouds, literally the entire globe shook: earthquakes occurred in many seismic zones 2 . And as if to top it all off, the length of the day abruptly changed by as much as 10... microseconds!

Space research has shown that the globe is surrounded by a magnetosphere, that is, a magnetic shell; inside the magnetosphere, the strength of the Earth's magnetic field prevails over the strength of the interplanetary field. And in order for a flare to have an impact on the Earth’s magnetosphere and the Earth itself, it must occur at a time when the active region on the Sun is located near the center of the solar disk, that is, oriented towards our planet. Otherwise, all flare radiation (electromagnetic and corpuscular) will fly by.

The plasma that rushes from the surface of the Sun into outer space has a certain density and is capable of exerting pressure on any obstacles encountered along its path. Such a significant obstacle is the Earth's magnetic field - its magnetosphere. It counteracts the flow of solar matter. There comes a moment when in this confrontation both pressures are balanced. Then the boundary of the Earth's magnetosphere, pressed by the flow of solar plasma from the day side, is established at a distance of approximately 10 Earth radii from the surface of our planet, and the plasma, unable to move straight, begins to flow around the magnetosphere. In this case, particles of solar matter stretch its magnetic field lines, and on the night side of the Earth (in the direction opposite from the Sun) a long trail (tail) is formed near the magnetosphere, which extends beyond the orbit of the Moon. The earth with its magnetic shell finds itself inside this corpuscular flow. And if the ordinary solar wind, constantly flowing around the magnetosphere, can be compared to a light breeze, then the rapid flow of corpuscles generated by a powerful solar flare is like a terrible hurricane. When such a hurricane hits the magnetic shell of the globe, it contracts even more strongly on the subsolar side and plays out on Earth magnetic storm.

Thus, solar activity affects terrestrial magnetism. As it intensifies, the frequency and intensity of magnetic storms increases. But this connection is quite complex and consists of a whole chain of physical interactions. The main link in this process is the enhanced flow of corpuscles that occurs during solar flares.

Some energetic corpuscles in polar latitudes break through from a magnetic trap into earth's atmosphere. And then, at altitudes from 100 to 1000 km, fast protons and electrons, colliding with air particles, excite them and make them glow. As a result, there is Polar Lights.

Periodic “revivals” of the great luminary are a natural phenomenon. For example, after a grandiose solar flare observed on March 6, 1989, corpuscular flows excited literally the entire magnetosphere of our planet. As a result, a strong magnetic storm broke out on Earth. It was accompanied by an aurora of astonishing scope, which reached the tropical zone in the area of ​​the California Peninsula! Three days later, a new powerful outbreak occurred, and on the night of March 13-14, residents of the southern coast of Crimea also admired the enchanting flashes spread out in the starry sky above the rocky teeth of Ai-Petri. It was a unique sight, like the glow of a fire that immediately engulfed half the sky.

All the geophysical effects mentioned here - ionospheric and magnetic storms and auroras - are an integral part of the most complex scientific problem called problem "Sun-Earth". However, the influence of solar activity on Earth is not limited to this. The “breath” of the daylight constantly manifests itself in changes in weather and climate.

Climate is nothing more than the long-term weather pattern in a given area, and it is determined by its geographical location on the globe and the nature of atmospheric processes.

Leningrad scientists from the Research Institute of the Arctic and Antarctic were able to reveal that during the years of minimum solar activity, latitudinal air circulation prevails. In this case, the weather in the Northern Hemisphere becomes relatively calm. During maximum years, on the contrary, the meridional circulation intensifies, that is, there is an intensive exchange of air masses between the tropical and polar regions. The weather is becoming unstable, and significant deviations from long-term climate norms are observed.

Western Europe: British Isles in the area of ​​a strong cyclone. Photo from space

1Everyone should remember that you should never look at the Sun without protecting your eyes with dark filters. You can instantly lose your sight

2Research fellow of the Murmansk branch of the Astronomical and Geodetic Society of Russia (its chairman) Viktor Evgenievich Troshenkov studied the impact of solar activity on the tectonics of the globe. His re-analysis of the seismic activity of our planet for 230 years (1750-1980) at the global level showed the presence of a linear relationship between Earth seismicity (earthquakes) and solar storms.

Sergey Bogachev

How are sunspots arranged?

One of the largest active regions of this year has appeared on the solar disk, which means that there are spots on the Sun again - despite the fact that our star is entering the period. Sergei Bogachev, an employee of the Laboratory of X-ray Solar Astronomy of the Lebedev Physical Institute, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, talks about the nature and history of the discovery of sunspots, as well as their impact on the earth’s atmosphere.

In the first decade of the 17th century, the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei and the German astronomer and mechanic Christoph Scheiner approximately simultaneously and independently improved what had been invented several years earlier. telescope(or telescope) and based on it they created a helioscope - a device that allows you to observe the Sun by projecting its image onto the wall. In these images they discovered details that could be mistaken for wall defects if they did not move along with the image - small spots dotting the surface of the ideal (and partly divine) central celestial body- The sun. This is how sunspots entered the history of science, and the saying that there is nothing ideal in the world came into our lives: “And there are spots on the Sun.”

Sunspots are the main feature that can be seen on the surface of our star without the use of complex astronomical equipment. The visible sizes of the spots are on the order of one arc minute (the size of a 10-kopeck coin from a distance of 30 meters), which is at the limit of resolution human eye. However, a very simple optical device, increasing only a few times for these objects to be discovered, which, in fact, happened in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. Individual observations of spots, however, regularly occurred before this, and often they were made simply by eye, but remained unnoticed or misunderstood.

For some time they tried to explain the nature of the spots without affecting the ideality of the Sun, for example, as clouds in the solar atmosphere, but it quickly became clear that they relate only mediocrely to the solar surface. Their nature, however, remained a mystery until the first half of the 20th century, when magnetic fields were first discovered on the Sun and it turned out that the places where they were concentrated coincided with the places where sunspots formed.

Why do the spots look dark? First of all, it should be noted that their darkness is not absolute. It is, rather, similar to the dark silhouette of a person standing against the backdrop of a lit window, that is, it is only apparent against the backdrop of very bright ambient light. If you measure the "brightness" of the spot, you will find that it also emits light, but only at a level of 20-40 percent of the normal light of the Sun. This fact is enough to determine the temperature of the spot without any additional measurements, since the flux of thermal radiation from the Sun is uniquely related to its temperature through the Stefan-Boltzmann law (the flux of radiation is proportional to the temperature of the radiating body to the fourth power). If we put the brightness of the normal surface of the Sun with a temperature of about 6000 degrees Celsius as a unit, then the temperature of sunspots should be about 4000-4500 degrees. Strictly speaking, this is how it is - sunspots (and this was later confirmed by other methods, for example, spectroscopic studies of radiation) are simply areas of the solar surface of lower temperature.

The connection between spots and magnetic fields is explained by the influence of the magnetic field on the temperature of the gas. This influence is due to the presence of a convective (boiling) zone in the Sun, which extends from the surface to a depth of about a third of the solar radius. The boiling of solar plasma continuously raises hot plasma from its depths to the surface and thereby increases the surface temperature. In areas where the surface of the Sun is pierced by tubes of a strong magnetic field, the efficiency of convection is suppressed until it stops completely. As a result, without replenishment of hot convective plasma, the surface of the Sun cools down to temperatures of about 4000 degrees. A stain forms.

Nowadays, spots are studied mainly as centers of active sunny areas, in which solar flares are concentrated. The fact is that the magnetic field, the “source” of which are sunspots, brings additional reserves of energy into the solar atmosphere, which are “extra” for the Sun, and it, like any physical system trying to minimize her energy, she tries to get rid of them. This additional energy is called free energy. There are two main mechanisms for releasing excess energy.

The first is when the Sun simply throws out into interplanetary space the part of the atmosphere that burdens it, along with excess magnetic fields, plasma and currents. These phenomena are called coronal mass ejections. The corresponding emissions, spreading from the Sun, sometimes reach colossal sizes of several million kilometers and are, in particular, main reason magnetic storms - the impact of such a plasma clot on the Earth’s magnetic field throws it out of balance, causes it to oscillate, and also strengthens electric currents, flowing in the Earth’s magnetosphere, which is the essence of a magnetic storm.

The second way is solar flares. In this case, free energy is burned directly in the solar atmosphere, but the consequences of this can also reach the Earth - in the form of streams of hard radiation and charged particles. This impact, which is radiation in nature, is one of the main reasons for the failure of spacecraft, as well as auroras.

However, having discovered a sunspot on the Sun, you should not immediately prepare for solar flares and magnetic storms. A fairly common situation is when the appearance of spots on the solar disk, even record-breaking large ones, does not lead to even a minimal increase in the level of solar activity. Why is this happening? This is due to the nature of the release of magnetic energy on the Sun. Such energy cannot be released from a single magnetic flux, just as a magnet lying on a table, no matter how much it is shaken, will not create any solar flare. There must be at least two such threads, and they must be able to interact with each other.

Since one magnetic tube piercing the surface of the Sun in two places creates two spots, then all groups of spots in which there are only two or one spots are not capable of creating flares. These groups are formed by one thread, which has nothing to interact with. Such a pair of spots can be gigantic and exist on the solar disk for months, frightening the Earth with their size, but will not create a single, even minimal, flare. Such groups have a classification and are called type Alpha, if there is one spot, or Beta, if there are two.

Complex sunspot of the Beta-Gamma-Delta type. Top - visible spot, bottom - magnetic fields shown using the HMI instrument on board the SDO space observatory

If you find a message about the appearance of a new sunspot on the Sun, take the time and look at the type of group. If it is Alpha or Beta, then you don’t have to worry - the Sun will not produce any flares or magnetic storms in the coming days. A more difficult class is Gamma. These are groups of sunspots in which there are several spots of northern and southern polarity. In such a region there are at least two interacting magnetic fluxes. Accordingly, such an area will lose magnetic energy and fuel solar activity. And finally last class- Beta Gamma. These are the most complex areas, with extremely confusing magnetic field. If such a group appears in the catalog, there is no doubt that the Sun will unravel this system for at least several days, burning energy in the form of flares, including large ones, and ejecting plasma until it simplifies this system to a simple Alpha or Beta configuration.

However, despite the “terrifying” connection of spots with flares and magnetic storms, we should not forget that this is one of the most remarkable astronomical phenomena that can be observed from the surface of the Earth using amateur instruments. Finally, sunspots are a very beautiful object - just look at their high-resolution images. Those who, even after this, are not able to forget about the negative aspects of this phenomenon, can be consoled by the fact that the number of spots on the Sun is still relatively small (no more than 1 percent of the disk surface, and often much less).

A number of types of stars, at least red dwarfs, “suffer” to a much greater extent - up to tens of percent of their area can be covered with spots. You can imagine what the hypothetical inhabitants of the corresponding planetary systems are like, and once again rejoice at what relatively calm star we are lucky enough to live next to.

People have known for a very long time that there are spots on the Sun. In ancient Russian and Chinese chronicles, as well as in the chronicles of other peoples, there were often references to observations of sunspots. Russian chronicles noted that the spots were visible “like nails.” The records helped confirm the pattern of periodic increase in the number of sunspots established later (in 1841). To notice such an object with the naked eye (subject, of course, to taking precautions - through thickly smoked glass or exposed negative film), it is necessary that its size on the Sun be at least 50 - 100 thousand kilometers, which is tens of times the radius of the Earth.

The sun consists of hot gases that move and mix all the time, and therefore there is nothing permanent and unchanging on the solar surface. The most stable formations are sunspots. But their appearance changes from day to day, and they, too, appear and disappear. At the time of its appearance, a sunspot is usually small in size; it may disappear, but it can also greatly increase.

Magnetic fields play the main role in most phenomena observed on the Sun. The solar magnetic field has a very complex structure and is constantly changing. The combined actions of the circulation of solar plasma in the convective zone and the differential rotation of the Sun constantly excite the process of strengthening weak magnetic fields and the emergence of new ones. Apparently this circumstance is the reason for the appearance of sunspots on the Sun. The spots appear and disappear. Their number and size vary. But approximately every 11 years the number of sunspots becomes greatest. Then they say that the Sun is active. With the same period (~ 11 years) the polarity reversal of the solar magnetic field occurs. It is natural to assume that these phenomena are interconnected.

The development of the active region begins with an increase in the magnetic field in the photosphere, which leads to the appearance of brighter areas - faculae (the temperature of the solar photosphere is on average 6000K, in the region of the faculae it is approximately 300K higher). Further strengthening of the magnetic field leads to the appearance of spots.

At the beginning of the 11-year cycle, spots begin to appear in small numbers at relatively high latitudes (35 - 40 degrees), and then gradually the spot formation zone descends to the equator, to a latitude of plus 10 - minus 10 degrees, but at the equator itself the spots, as a rule, , can not be.

Galileo Galilei was one of the first to notice that spots are not observed everywhere on the Sun, but mainly at middle latitudes, within the so-called “royal zones”.

At first, single spots usually appear, but then a whole group arises from them, in which two large spots are distinguished - one on the western, the other on the eastern edge of the group. At the beginning of our century, it became clear that the polarities of the eastern and western sunspots are always opposite. They form, as it were, two poles of one magnet, and therefore such a group is called bipolar. A typical sunspot is several tens of thousands of kilometers in size.

Galileo, sketching the spots, noted a gray border around some of them.

Indeed, the spot consists of a central, darker part - the shadow and a lighter area - the penumbra.

Sunspots are sometimes visible on its disk even with the naked eye. The apparent blackness of these formations is due to the fact that their temperature is approximately 1500 degrees lower than the temperature of the surrounding photosphere (and, accordingly, the continuous radiation from them is much less). A single developed spot consists of a dark oval - the so-called spot shadow, surrounded by a lighter fibrous penumbra. Undeveloped small spots without penumbra are called pores. Often stains and pores form complex groups.

A typical group of sunspots initially appears as one or several pores in the region of the undisturbed photosphere. Most of these groups usually disappear after 1-2 days. But some consistently grow and develop, forming quite complex structures. Sunspots can be larger in diameter than the Earth. They often form groups. They form within a few days and usually disappear within a week. Some large spots, though, may persist for a month. Large groups of sunspots are more active than small groups or individual sunspots.

The sun changes the state of the Earth's magnetosphere and atmosphere. Magnetic fields and particle flows that come from sunspots reach the Earth and affect primarily the brain, cardiovascular and circulatory system person, on her physical, nervous and psychological condition. High level of solar activity, its quick changes excite a person, and therefore a team, a class, a society, especially when there are common interests and a clear and perceived idea.

By turning one or the other hemisphere towards the Sun, the Earth receives energy. This flow can be represented in the form of a traveling wave: where the light falls - its crest, where it is dark - its trough. In other words, energy waxes and wanes. Mikhail Lomonosov spoke about this in his famous natural law.

The theory about the wave-like nature of the flow of energy to the Earth prompted the founder of heliobiology, Alexander Chizhevsky, to draw attention to the connection between an increase in solar activity and earthly cataclysms. The first observation made by the scientist dates back to June 1915. In the North, auroras shone, observed both in Russia and in North America, and “magnetic storms continuously disrupted the movement of telegrams.” It was during this period that the scientist drew attention to the fact that increased solar activity coincided with bloodshed on Earth. Indeed, immediately after the appearance of large sunspots on many fronts of the First World War, hostilities intensified.

Now astronomers say that our star is becoming brighter and hotter. This is due to the fact that over the past 90 years, the activity of its magnetic field has more than doubled, with the greatest increase occurring over the past 30 years. In Chicago, at the annual conference of the American Astronomical Society, scientists warned of troubles threatening humanity. Just at the moment when computers across the planet are adapting to operating conditions in the year 2000, our luminary will enter the most turbulent phase of its 11-year cyclic. Scientists will now be able to accurately predict solar flares, which will make it possible to prepare in advance for possible failures in the operation of radio and electrical networks. Now most solar observatories have confirmed a “storm warning” for next year, because... Solar activity peaks every 11 years, and the previous storm occurred in 1989.

This could lead to power lines on Earth going down and the orbits of satellites that support communications systems and “guide” airplanes and ocean liners to change. Solar “violence” is usually characterized by powerful flares and the appearance of many of those same spots.

Alexander Chizhevsky back in the 20s. discovered that solar activity influences extreme earthly events - epidemics, wars, revolutions... The Earth not only revolves around the Sun - all life on our planet pulsates in the rhythms of solar activity, he established.

The French historian and sociologist Hippolyte Tarde called poetry a PRESENTATION OF TRUTH. In 1919, Chizhevsky wrote a poem in which he foresaw his fate. It was dedicated to Galileo Galilei:

And again and again they rose

sunspots on the sun,

And sober minds became darkened,

And the throne fell, and they were irrevocable

Famine and the horrors of the plague

And the face of life turned into a grimace:

The compass was tossing, the people were rioting,

And above the Earth and above the human mass

The Sun was making its rightful move.

O you who have seen sunspots

With his magnificent audacity,

You didn’t know how they would be clear to me

And your sorrows are near, Galileo!

In 1915-1916, while monitoring what was happening on the Russian-German front, Alexander Chizhevsky made a discovery that amazed his contemporaries. The increase in solar activity, recorded through a telescope, coincided with the intensification of hostilities. Having become interested, he conducted a statistical study among relatives and friends for a possible connection between neuropsychic and physiological reactions with the appearance of flares and sunspots. Having processed the resulting tablets mathematically, he came to an amazing conclusion: the Sun influences our entire lives much more subtly and deeply than previously imagined. In the bloody and muddy mess of the end of the century we see a clear confirmation of his ideas. And in the special services different countries Nowadays, entire departments are engaged in the analysis of solar activity... Most importantly, the synchronicity of solar activity maxima with periods of revolutions and wars has been proven; periods of increased sunspot activity often coincided with all sorts of social unrest.

Recently, several space satellites have recorded the emission of solar prominences, characterized by unusually high levels of X-ray emission. Such phenomena pose a serious threat to the Earth and its inhabitants. An outbreak of such power could potentially destabilize energy networks. Fortunately, the flow of energy did not affect the Earth and no expected troubles occurred. But the event itself is a harbinger of the so-called “solar maximum”, accompanied by the release of a much larger amount of energy, capable of disabling communications and power lines, transformers; astronauts and space satellites located outside the Earth’s magnetic field and not protected will be at risk atmosphere of the planet. There are more NASA satellites in orbit today than ever before. There is also a threat to aircraft, expressed in the possibility of stopping radio communications and jamming radio signals.

Solar maxima are difficult to predict; we only know that they repeat approximately every 11 years. The next one should happen in the middle of 2000, and its duration will be from one to two years. So says David Hathaway, a heliophysicist at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center.

Prominences may occur daily during solar maximum, but it is unknown exactly how powerful they will be and whether they will affect our planet. Over the past few months, bursts of solar activity and the resulting flow of energy directed at Earth have been too weak to cause any damage. In addition to the X-ray radiation, this phenomenon poses other dangers: the Sun emits a billion tons of ionized hydrogen, the wave of which travels at a million miles per hour and can reach the Earth in a few days. An even bigger problem is the energy waves from protons and alpha particles. They travel at much higher speeds and leave no time to take countermeasures, unlike waves of ionized hydrogen, from the path of which satellites and aircraft can be removed.

In some of the most extreme cases, all three waves can reach Earth suddenly and almost simultaneously. There is no protection; scientists are not yet able to accurately predict such a release, much less its consequences.

History of the study

The first reports of sunspots date back to 800 BC. e. in China .

Sketches of spots from the chronicle of John of Worcester

The spots were first sketched in 1128 in the chronicle of John of Worcester.

The first known mention of sunspots in Old Russian literature is in the Nikon Chronicle, in records dating back to the second half of the 14th century:

there was a sign in the sky, the sun was like blood, and in it the places were black

there was a sign in the sun, the places were black in the sun, like nails, and the darkness was great

Early research focused on the nature of the spots and their behavior. Despite the fact that the physical nature of the spots remained unclear until the 20th century, observations continued. By the 19th century, there was already a long enough series of observations of sunspots to notice periodic variations in solar activity. In 1845, D. Henry and S. Alexander (eng. S. Alexander ) from Princeton University conducted observations of the Sun using a special thermometer (en:thermopile) and determined that the intensity of the sunspot radiation, compared to the surrounding regions of the Sun, was reduced.

Emergence

The appearance of a sunspot: magnetic lines penetrate the surface of the Sun

Spots arise as a result of disturbances in individual sections of the Sun's magnetic field. At the beginning of this process, magnetic field tubes “break through” the photosphere into the corona region, and the strong field suppresses the convective motion of plasma in the granules, preventing the transfer of energy from the internal regions to the outside in these places. First, a torch appears in this place, a little later and to the west - a small point called it's time, several thousand kilometers in size. Over the course of several hours, the magnitude of the magnetic induction increases (at initial values 0.1 tesla), the size and number of pores increases. They merge with each other and form one or more spots. During most active spots, the magnitude of magnetic induction can reach 0.4 tesla.

The lifespan of the stains reaches several months, that is separate groups spots can be observed during several revolutions of the Sun. It was this fact (the movement of the observed spots along the solar disk) that served as the basis for proving the rotation of the Sun and made it possible to carry out the first measurements of the period of revolution of the Sun around its axis.

Spots usually form in groups, but sometimes a single spot appears that lasts only a few days, or a bipolar group: two spots of different magnetic polarity, connected by magnetic field lines. The western spot in such a bipolar group is called the “leading”, “head” or “P-spot” (from the English. preceding), eastern - “slave”, “tail” or “F-spot” (from the English. following).

Only half of the spots live for more than two days, and only a tenth live for more than 11 days.

At the beginning of the 11-year cycle of solar activity, sunspots appear at high heliographic latitudes (on the order of ±25-30°), and as the cycle progresses, the spots migrate to the solar equator, reaching latitudes of ±5-10° at the end of the cycle. This pattern is called “Spoerer's law”.

Groups of sunspots are oriented approximately parallel to the solar equator, but there is some inclination of the group axis relative to the equator, which tends to increase for groups located further from the equator (the so-called “Joy’s law”).

Properties

The average temperature of the Sun's surface is about 6000 K ( effective temperature- 5770 K, radiation temperature - 6050 K). The central, darkest area of ​​the spots has a temperature of only about 4000 K, the outer areas of the spots bordering the normal surface are from 5000 to 5500 K. Despite the fact that the temperature of the spots is lower, their substance still emits light, albeit to a lesser extent degrees than the rest of the surface. It is because of this temperature difference that when observed, one gets the feeling that the spots are dark, almost black, although in fact they also glow, but their glow is lost against the background of the brighter solar disk.

The central dark part of the spot is called the shadow. Typically its diameter is about 0.4 times the diameter of the spot. In the shadow, the magnetic field strength and temperature are quite uniform, and the glow intensity in visible light is 5-15% of the photospheric value. The shadow is surrounded by a penumbra, consisting of light and dark radial filaments with a glow intensity of 60 to 95% of the photospheric one.

The surface of the Sun in the region where the sunspot is located is located approximately 500-700 km lower than the surface of the surrounding photosphere. This phenomenon is called “Wilsonian depression”.

Sunspots are areas of greatest activity on the Sun. If there are many spots, then there is a high probability that reconnection of magnetic lines will occur - lines passing within one group of spots recombine with lines from another group of spots that have the opposite polarity. The visible result of this process is a solar flare. A burst of radiation reaching the Earth causes strong disturbances in its magnetic field, disrupts the operation of satellites and even affects objects located on the planet. Due to disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field, the likelihood of northern lights occurring at low latitudes increases. The Earth's ionosphere is also subject to fluctuations in solar activity, which manifests itself in changes in the propagation of short radio waves.

Classification

Spots are classified depending on their lifespan, size, and location.

Stages of development

Local strengthening of the magnetic field, as mentioned above, slows down the movement of plasma in convection cells, thereby slowing down the transfer of heat to the surface of the Sun. Cooling the granules affected by this process (by approximately 1000 °C) leads to their darkening and the formation of a single spot. Some of them disappear after a few days. Others develop into bipolar groups of two spots, the magnetic lines in which have opposite polarities. They can form groups of many spots, which, if the area increases further, penumbra combine up to hundreds of spots, reaching sizes of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. After this, there is a slow (over several weeks or months) decrease in the activity of the spots and a reduction in their size to small double or single dots.

The largest groups of sunspots always have a connected group in the other hemisphere (northern or southern). In such cases, magnetic lines emerge from spots in one hemisphere and enter spots in the other.

Spot group sizes

The size of a group of spots is usually characterized by its geometric extent, as well as the number of spots included in it and their total area.

There can be from one to one and a half hundred or more spots in a group. The areas of the groups, which are conveniently measured in millionths of the area of ​​the solar hemisphere (m.s.p.), vary from several m.s.s. up to several thousand m.s.p.

The maximum area for the entire period of continuous observations of sunspot groups (from 1874 to 2012) was group No. 1488603 (according to the Greenwich catalogue), which appeared on the solar disk on March 30, 1947, at the maximum of the 18th 11-year cycle of solar activity. By April 8, its total area reached 6132 m.s.f. (1.87·10 10 km², which is more than 36 times the area of ​​the globe). At its peak, this group consisted of more than 170 individual sunspots.

Cyclicality

The solar cycle is associated with the frequency of sunspots, their activity and lifespan. One cycle covers approximately 11 years. During periods of minimum activity there are very few or no sunspots on the Sun, while during periods of maximum there may be several hundred of them. At the end of each cycle, the polarity of the solar magnetic field is reversed, so it is more correct to speak of a 22-year solar cycle.

Cycle duration

Although the average solar activity cycle lasts about 11 years, there are cycles ranging from 9 to 14 years in length. Averages also change over the centuries. Thus, in the 20th century, the average cycle length was 10.2 years.

The shape of the cycle is not constant. Swiss astronomer Max Waldmeier argued that the transition from minimum to maximum solar activity occurs the faster, the greater the maximum number of sunspots recorded in this cycle (the so-called “Waldmeier rule”).

Start and end of the cycle

In the past, the beginning of the cycle was considered to be the moment when solar activity was at its minimum point. Thanks to modern measurement methods, it has become possible to determine the change in the polarity of the solar magnetic field, so now the moment of change in the polarity of the sunspots is taken as the beginning of the cycle.

Cycle numbering was proposed by R. Wolf. The first cycle, according to this numbering, began in 1749. In 2009, the 24th solar cycle began.

• Last row data - forecast

There is a periodicity of change maximum quantity sunspots with characteristic period about 100 years (“secular cycle”). The last lows of this cycle occurred approximately 1800-1840 and 1890-1920. There is an assumption about the existence of cycles of even longer duration.

see also

Notes

Links

• Unified Sunspot Magnetic Field Database - includes sunspot images from 1957-1997
• Locarno Monti Observatory sunspot images - covers the period 1981-2011
• Physics of space. Little Encyclopedia M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986

Animation diagrams of the process of sunspot formation

• how are sunspots formed? (How do sunspots form?)

Sun
Structure	Core · Radiative transfer zone · Convective zone
Atmosphere	Photosphere · Chromosphere · Solar corona
Extended structure	Heliosphere (Heliospheric current sheet · Shock wave boundary) · Heliospheric mantle · Heliopause · Head shock wave
Related to the Sun phenomena	Solar eclipse · Solar Activity ( Sunspots · Solar flares · Coronal mass ejections) · Solar radiation (Variations of solar radiation) · Coronal holes · Coronal loops · Torches · Granules · Floccules · Prominences and filaments · Spicules · Supergranulation · sunny wind · Morton wave
Related Topics	solar system · Solar Dynamo · Stellar evolution

Step back

QUESTION No. 114. What do dark spots on the Sun portend, why do they appear and what for? Does their absence mean the imminent onset of an ice age on the planet?

On the “Universe” website dated May 16, 2017, scientists announced an unusual phenomenon on the Sun at the link:

“NASA scientists reported that all spots have disappeared from the surface of the Sun. Not a single speck has been found for the third day in a row. This causes serious concern among experts.

According to NASA scientists, if the situation does not change soon, the inhabitants of the Earth should prepare for severe cold. The disappearance of sunspots threatens humanity with the onset of an ice age. Experts are confident that changes in the appearance of the Sun may indicate a significant decrease in the activity of the only star in the solar system, which will ultimately lead to a global decrease in temperature on planet Earth. Similar phenomena occurred in the period from 1310 to 1370 and from 1645 to 1725, at the same time periods of global cooling or the so-called Little Ice Ages were recorded.

According to the observations of scientists, amazing purity on the Sun was recorded at the beginning of 2017; the solar disk remained spotless for 32 days. The Sun remained spotless for exactly the same amount of time last year. Such phenomena threaten that the power of ultraviolet radiation decreases, which means that the upper layers of the atmosphere are discharged. This will lead to the fact that all space debris will accumulate in the atmosphere, and not burn up as always happens. Some scientists believe that the Earth is starting to freeze."

This is what the sun looked like without dark spots at the beginning of 2017

There were no sunspots on the Sun in 2014 - 1 day, in 2015 - 0 days, for 2 months at the beginning of 2017 - 32 days.

What does it mean? Why do spots disappear?

A clear Sun marks the approaching minimum of solar activity. The sunspot cycle is like a pendulum, swinging back and forth with a period of 11–12 years. Right now the pendulum is close to low sunspot numbers. Experts expect the cycle to bottom out in 2019–2020. From now until then, we will see the absolutely untainted Sun many more times. At first, periods without spots will be measured in days, later in weeks and months. Science does not yet have a complete explanation for this phenomenon.

What is the 11-year cycle of solar activity?

The eleven-year cycle is a marked cycle of solar activity, lasting approximately 11 years. It is characterized by a fairly rapid (about 4 years) increase in the number of sunspots, and then a slower (about 7 years) decrease. The length of the cycle is not strictly equal to 11 years: in the 18th–20th centuries its length was 7–17 years, and in the 20th century it was approximately 10.5 years.

It is known that the level of solar activity is constantly changing. Dark spots, their appearance and number are very closely related to this phenomenon and one cycle can vary from 9 to 14 years, and the level of activity constantly changes from century to century. Thus, there may be periods of calm when there are virtually no spots for more than one year. But the opposite can also happen when their number is considered abnormal. Thus, in October 1957 there were 254 dark spots on the Sun, which is the maximum to date.

The most intriguing question is: where does solar activity come from and how to explain its features?

It is known that the determining factor in solar activity is the magnetic field. To answer this question, the first steps have already been taken towards constructing a scientifically based theory that can explain all the observed features of the activity of the great star.

Science has also established the fact that it is dark spots that lead to solar flares, which can have strong impact to the Earth's magnetic field. Dark spots have reduced temperature in relation to the photosphere of the Sun - about 3500 degrees C and represent the very regions through which magnetic fields reach the surface, which is called magnetic activity. If there are few spots, then this is called a quiet period, and when there are many of them, then such a period will be called active.

On average, the temperature of the Sun on the surface reaches 6000 degrees. C. Sunspots last from a couple of days to several weeks. But groups of spots can remain in the photosphere for months. The sizes of sunspots, as well as their number in groups, can be very diverse.

Data on past solar activity are available for study, but they are unlikely to be the most faithful assistant in predicting the future, because the nature of the Sun is very unpredictable.

Impact on the planet. Magnetic phenomena on the Sun interact closely with our daily lives. The Earth is constantly attacked by various radiations from the Sun. The planet is protected from their destructive effects by the magnetosphere and atmosphere. But, unfortunately, they are not able to resist him completely. Satellites may be disabled, radio communications may be disrupted, and astronauts may be exposed to increased danger. Increased doses of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from the Sun can be dangerous for the planet, especially in the presence of ozone holes in the atmosphere. In February 1956, the most powerful flare on the Sun occurred with the release of a huge cloud of plasma the size more planet at a speed of 1000 km/sec.

In addition, radiation affects climate change and even a person’s appearance. There is such a thing as sun spots on the body that appear under the influence of ultraviolet radiation. This issue has not yet been properly studied, as well as the influence of sunspots on daily life of people. Another phenomenon that depends on magnetic disturbances is the northern lights.

Magnetic storms in the planet's atmosphere have become one of the most famous consequences of solar activity. They represent another external magnetic field around the Earth, which is parallel to the constant one. Modern scientists even associate increased mortality, as well as exacerbation of diseases of cardio-vascular system with the advent of this very magnetic field.”

Here is some information about the parameters of the Sun: diameter - 1 million. 390 thousand km, chemical composition hydrogen (75%) and helium (25%), mass - 2x10 to the 27th power of tons, which is 99.8% of the mass of all planets and objects in solar system, every second in thermonuclear reactions the Sun burns 600 million tons of hydrogen, turning it into helium, and releases 4 million tons of its mass into space in the form of all radiation. In the volume of the Sun, you can place 1 million planets like the Earth and there will still be free space. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 150 million km. Its age is about 5 billion years.

Answer:

In article No. 46 this section The site reports information unknown to science: “There is no thermonuclear reactor in the center of the Sun; there is a white hole there, which receives up to half the energy for the Sun from black hole in the center of the Galaxy through the portals of space-time channels. Thermonuclear reactions, which produce only about half the energy expended by the Sun, occur locally in the outer layers of the neutrino and neutron shells. Dark spots on the surface of the Sun are black holes through which energy from the center of the Galaxy enters the center of your star.”

Almost all the stars of the Galaxies that have planetary systems are connected by invisible spatial-energy channels with huge black holes in the centers of the Galaxies.

These galactic black holes have spatial-energy channels with stellar systems and are the energy basis of the Galaxies and the entire Universe. They feed stars with planetary systems with their accumulated energy received from the matter they absorbed in the center of the Galaxies. Black hole at the center of our Galaxy Milky Way has a mass equal to 4 million solar masses. The energy supply of stars from a black hole occurs according to established calculations for each stellar system in terms of period and power.

This is necessary so that the star always shines with the same intensity over millions of years without attenuation in order to conduct continuous CC experiments in each stellar system. The black hole in the center of the Galaxy restores up to 50% of all the energy spent by the Sun to emit up to 4 million tons of its mass every second in the form of radiation. The Sun creates the same amount of energy with its thermonuclear reactions on a surface.

Therefore, when a star is connected to the energy channels of a black hole from the center of the Galaxy, the required number of black holes are formed on the surface of the Sun, receiving energy and transmitting it to the center of the star.

At the center of the Sun there is a black hole that receives energy from its surface; science calls such holes white holes. The appearance of dark spots on the Sun - black holes - is the period when the star connects to the recharge from the energy channels of the Galaxy and is not a harbinger of future global cooling or an ice age on Earth, as scientists suggest. For global cooling to occur on the planet, the average annual temperature must drop by 3 degrees, which could lead to icing in northern Europe, Russia and the Scandinavian countries. But according to observations and monitoring of scientists Over the past 50 years, the average annual temperature on the planet has not changed.

The average annual value of solar ultraviolet radiation also remained at normal levels. During a period of solar activity, in the presence of dark spots on the Sun, the magnetic activity of the star increases (magnetic storms) within the maximum values ​​of all past 11-year cycles. The fact is that the energy from the black hole from the center of the Galaxy, arriving at the black holes of the Sun, has magnetism. Therefore, during the period with dark spots, the substance on the surface of the solar photosphere is activated by the magnetic field of these spots in the form of emissions, arches and prominences, which is called increased solar activity.

The gloomy assumptions of scientists about the upcoming period of global cooling on the planet are untenable due to the lack of reliable information about the Sun. Global cooling or small ice ages in the 2nd millennium AD, which are indicated at the beginning of the article, occurred according to the plan of climate experiments on Earth by our Creators and Observers, and not due to random failures in the form of a long absence of dark spots on the Sun.

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