Last update: 19/06/2015

What makes people risk their health and well-being to help other people? Why do people spend their time, energy and money trying to make the lives of others better, knowing that they will not gain any benefit from it? The desire to selflessly care for others implies altruism. Altruists do things simply out of a desire to help, rather than out of a sense of duty or commitment.

Our daily life is full of good deeds - sometimes someone will kindly hold your door, sometimes passers-by will give alms to someone in need.

The news often talks about more serious manifestations of altruism: people who dive into an icy river to save a drowning stranger, or generous benefactors who donate huge sums to various foundations. We are very familiar with the phenomenon of altruism, but social psychologists still don't know for sure why it exists. What inspires us to do such things? What motivates the characters in news stories to risk their own lives to save a complete stranger?

Altruism is one aspect of prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior includes any action that benefits other people regardless of our motives or possible personal benefit. Remember, however, that only pure altruism involves true selflessness. It is also worth remembering that although all altruistic acts are prosocial in nature, prosocial behavior is not always altruistic.

For example, we help others for various reasons - out of guilt, obligation, duty, or even out of a desire for a future reward.

Reasons for the existence of altruism

Psychologists have proposed a number of different explanations for why altruism exists.

Biological reasons

Kin selection: We may be more attracted to those with whom we are related, as this makes it more likely that our relationships will persist. This is the only way we can pass on our genes to future generations.

Neurological causes

Altruism affects the internal reward centers in the brain. Neuroscientists have discovered that when a person selflessly does something good, the pleasure centers are activated.

Social norms

The rules, norms and expectations that exist in society can also influence a person's behavior. For example, the principle of reciprocity, in which we feel obligated to help others if they have already done something for us. If your friend lent you money for lunch a few weeks ago, you'll probably feel obligated to do the same for him - even when he asks you for a much larger sum.

Cognitive reasons

Although the definition of altruism implies a lack of reward, the phenomenon itself represents cognitive stimuli that are not obvious to us. For example, we may alleviate the suffering of others because good deeds confirm our view of ourselves as empathetic people.

There are other cognitive reasons:

• Empathy. Researchers including Batson et al. (1981) suggest that people are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior when they empathize with a person who is in distress. Batson suggests that both empathy and altruism are innate traits. Other researchers have found that children develop altruism along with empathy.
• Dealing with Negative Feelings. Other experts have suggested that displaying altruism helps combat the negative feelings associated with seeing a person in distress. In fact, when we see another person in trouble, we experience negative emotions - we are upset, we feel uncomfortable - so by helping a person, we help ourselves first of all.

Comparing theories

The main question that still plagues psychologists is: is there really “pure” altruism? Do we perform useful actions for truly altruistic reasons, or are we still always looking for hidden benefits for ourselves?

Batson suggested that although people often do good for selfish reasons, true altruism exists. Cialdini and others, on the other hand, have suggested that compassion for others often arises from a person's desire to help himself.

Altruism is a concept that is in many ways similar to selflessness, where a person shows unselfish concern for the well-being of other people. In fact, altruistic behavior is the direct opposite of egoism, and in psychology it is also considered as a synonym for prosocial behavior. But the concepts of altruism and egoism are not so inseparable, because they are both sides of the same coin.

In psychology, altruism is defined as a social phenomenon, and this term was first formed by Francois Xavier Comte, the founder of sociology. In his interpretation, altruism meant living for the sake of others; over time, the understanding of this concept has not undergone significant changes. However, such a principle of moral behavior does not always become an expression of selfless love for one’s neighbor. Psychologists note that often altruistic motives arise from the desire to be recognized in one area or another. The difference between altruism and love is that the object here is not a specific individual.

In the works of many philosophers one can see the justification of altruism by pity as a natural manifestation of human nature. In society, altruistic behavior can also bring certain benefits, expressed, for example, in increasing reputation.

Basic theories

Today there are three main theories of altruism. The first of them is associated with evolution and is based on the opinion that altruistic motives are initially programmed in living beings and contribute to the preservation of the genotype. The theory of social exchange considers manifestations of altruism as a form of deep-seated egoism, since, according to supporters of this theory, when doing something for others, a person still calculates his own benefit. The theory of social norms is built on the principles of reciprocity and social responsibility.

Of course, none of the put forward theories reliably and comprehensively explains the true nature of altruism, perhaps because such a phenomenon should be considered not on a scientific, but on a spiritual plane.

Forms

If we consider the works of philosophers and psychologists, altruism can be moral, meaningful, normative, but also pathological. In accordance with the theories described above, the following types of altruism can also be distinguished:

Manifestations in life

To get closer to understanding real altruism, we can consider examples from life. A soldier who shields a comrade with his body during combat operations, the wife of a drunken alcoholic who not only tolerates her husband, but also strives to help him, mothers of many children who do not find time for themselves - all these are examples of altruistic behavior.

In the everyday life of every person, manifestations of altruism also take place, expressed, for example, as follows:

• family relationships. Even in a normal family, manifestations of altruism are an integral part of strong relationships between spouses and their children;
• present. To some extent, this can also be called altruism, although sometimes gifts can be presented for not entirely selfless purposes;
• participation in charity. A striking example of selfless concern for the well-being of people in need of help;
• mentoring. Altruism often manifests itself in the fact that more experienced people teach others, for example, their less experienced colleagues for work, etc.

Several striking examples can also be found in the literature. Thus, examples of altruistic behavior were described by Maxim Gorky in his work “The Old Woman
Izergil”, in the part where the hero Danko managed to lead the tribe out of the ruined forest, tearing out his own heart from his chest and illuminating the way for suffering people forced to make their way through the endless jungle. This is an example of selflessness, true altruism, when a hero gives his life without receiving anything in return. Interestingly, Gorky in his work showed not only the positive aspects of such altruistic behavior. Altruism always involves the renunciation of one's own interests, but in everyday life such feats are not always appropriate.

Quite often, people misunderstand the definition of altruism, confusing it with charity or philanthropy. Altruistic behavior usually has the following characteristics:

• sense of responsibility. An altruist is always ready to answer for the consequences of his actions;
• unselfishness. Altruists do not seek personal gain from their actions;
• sacrifice. A person is ready to incur certain material, time, intellectual and other costs;
• freedom of choice. Altruistic actions are always a personal choice;
• priority. An altruist puts the interests of others first, often forgetting about his own;
• feeling of satisfaction. By sacrificing their own resources, altruists do not feel deprived or disadvantaged in any way.

Altruism helps in many ways to reveal the potential of an individual, because a person can do much more for other people than for himself. In psychology, there is even a widespread opinion that altruistic natures feel much happier than egoists. However, this phenomenon practically never occurs in its pure form, so many individuals quite harmoniously combine both altruism and selfishness.

Interestingly, there are some differences between the manifestations of altruism in women and men. The former usually tend to show long-term behavior, for example, caring for loved ones. Men are more likely to commit isolated actions, often violating generally accepted social norms.

When it comes to pathology

Unfortunately, altruism is not always the norm. If a person shows compassion for others in a painful form, suffers from delusions of self-blame, tries to provide help, which in fact only brings harm, we are talking about so-called pathological altruism. This condition requires observation and treatment by a psychotherapist, since the pathology can have very serious manifestations and consequences, including altruistic suicide.

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION







CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Work No. 3979. This is a TRIAL VERSION of the work, the price of the original is 1000 rubles. Designed in Microsoft Word.

Payment. Contacts

INTRODUCTION
Altruistic orientation is quite the most common form human activity playing a role in interpersonal contacts, intragroup interaction, communication and joint activities of people.
Nowadays, the topic of altruistic interaction between people is beginning to attract more and more attention. On the one hand, the reason for such attention is the global increase in aggression, both personal and intergroup, caused by the continuous stress in which most people have recently lived. On the other hand, this overpopulation of the globe forces us to look for alternative ways interactions between people, nations and countries. On the third hand, this is the massive spread of chronic alcoholism, drug addiction and depression as various methods of suicidal behavior among a number of ethnic groups and entire nations.
Also of significant interest is the growth of egoistic tendencies, which is becoming increasingly obvious in our time. Modern morality, conditioned by the agony of a culture of overconsumption, has placed selfishness at the forefront. Egocentrism has become the norm; it evokes sympathy; it is sought after; it is a goal and a means of achieving other goals. This opinion is currently expressed by psychoanalysts. That is why modern psychologists are trying to find out the factors that allow people to manifest their behavior best qualities care, attention and help, moral and material sacrifice.
Altruistic behavior of an individual has been sufficiently studied in psychological science. In psychology, approaches to altruism can be classified into three large groups
1. socio-psychological models of altruistic behavior considering it as a mechanism regulating mutual exchange and based on universal human norms of behavior D. Myers R. Cialdini A. Gouldner
2. deep psychological understanding of altruism as a mechanism protecting the weak ego of the subject D.V. Winnicott M. Klein K. Menninger A. Freud Z. Freud E. Fromm C. Horney C. G. Jung
3. psychological interpretation of altruism, expanding the view of this phenomenon from the position of the attitude and orientation of the personality formed in the process of human activity and also considering it as a mechanism of cooperation V.S.Ageev G.M.Andreeva L.N.Antilogova A.G.Asmolov A. F. Bondarenko L. I. Bozhovich B. I. Dodonov Z. S. Karpenko A. N. Leontiev S. D. Maksimenko N. N. Obozov K. K. Platonov A. V. Petrovsky N. I. Sarzhveladze.
Current psychological research is devoted not so much to the genesis of altruism and its antipode - egoism, but to the identification of the conditions and factors for the manifestation of altruistic behavior in society. It has been established that significant factors in the manifestation of altruism are the willingness to take responsibility for the ongoing experience of guilt, sadness, and vice versa - happiness, elements of social similarity and a decrease in the uncertainty of the situation. In the study by A.A. Moiseeva shows that the personal basis of altruism is the tendency to empathy, sympathy and understanding.
The work of E. E. Nasinovskaya shows that the bearer of altruistic motivation is capable of showing altruism not only in relation to any social association of which he is a member, but even towards unfamiliar persons and communities in which he is not actually included. In contrast to the collectivist altruistic orientation, it has a general humanistic character; it refers to deeply personal characteristics and is capable of manifesting itself in a wide variety of life situations.
At this stage of studying the problem of altruistic behavior, researchers have identified and characterized various types of altruism manifested in modern society.
However, despite the significant level of sanctification in the psychological scientific literature, the study of altruistic motivation does not lose its relevance.
Target course work- analysis psychological mechanisms altruistic motivation
Research objectives
 give a general description of altruistic behavior in psychology
 to explore the psychological features of the formation of altruistic motivation of the individual
The subject of the study is the psychological characteristics of altruistic motivation.
The object of study is altruistic motivation of the individual.
The course work consists of the introduction of two sections and the conclusion of the list of used literature.
CHAPTER I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR IN PSYCHOLOGY.
1.1. Definition of “altruism”
Altruism has existed and been recognized as a moral principle since ancient times in the development of human society. This principle can be seen in the sayings of Socrates, who said that a person’s spirituality and sincerity is manifested in his desire to serve other people. The idea of ​​altruism, the gratuitous service of another, is one of the central to the morality of Buddhism and Christianity, and was later developed as a moral principle by English ethics in the eighteenth century. A. Shaftesbury F. Hutcheson A. Smith D. Hume and also the ideas of French Enlightenment J-J. Rousseau and in German ethics G. Leibniz I. Kant L. Feuerbach.
The term “altruism” was first introduced by O. Comte, who formed the principle of “revile pour outre” - to live for others. The scientist believed that a person who has sufficiently developed such a quality as altruism is capable of appreciating the personality of another and accepting his individuality - moral principle behavior meaning the ability to carry out selfless actions in the interests of other people. According to O. Comte, altruism is the opposite and antonymous to egoism and implies such behavior and activity of a person in which it brings more benefits to other people than requires them to make any expenses.
Opposition to this understanding of altruism is Charlie L. Hardy Mark van Vugt David Miller and David Kelly, who in their research have shown that altruism and altruistic behavior are not associated with direct benefits or with combinations of various benefits, but ultimately in the long run create more benefits than were expended to perform altruistic actions.
Today there is no generally accepted definition of altruism. In foreign psychology, a widespread definition of this phenomenon is based on “the intention to create relief or improve the situation for another in need” and altruistic behavior is understood as behavior in which “a person acts under the assumption that, thanks to his actions, the recipient will be eliminated from an undesirable condition.”
In the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, edited by S. I. Ozhegov, altruism in fr. altruisme from lat. alter - the other is interpreted as a moral principle prescribing compassion and mercy for other people, the readiness to act for their benefit, regardless of one’s own interests.
V.V. Abramenkova in her “Concise Psychological Dictionary” defines altruism as a system of value orientations of an individual in which the central motive and criterion for moral assessment are the interests of another person or a social community.
A large psychological dictionary interprets altruism as a rule of moral activity that recognizes a person’s duty to put the interests of other people and the common good above personal interests, an attitude expressed in the readiness to make sacrifices for the benefit of neighbors and the common good. Altruistic behavior is manifested in voluntary help to another person despite the risk or sacrifice that this help involves.
V. Efroimson understood altruism as “the entire group of emotions that prompts a person to do actions that are directly disadvantageous and even dangerous for him personally, but that benefit other people.”
N.V. Grishina notes that altruism is an independent motive that differs from other motives based on personal gain; it is based on love and selfless concern for others, the ability to make free sacrifices for the sake of the group, the need to give and a sense of responsibility.
A.F. Lazursky wrote that altruism is based on a complex of emotional properties of a person, a feeling of sympathy or the process of “feeling”, affective excitability, the strength and duration of emotions, as well as a significant development of volitional activity aimed at helping those suffering and in need, the absence of selfishness and selfishness, often reaching the point of self-forgetfulness and self-sacrifice significant development of moral qualities and interest in internal emotional experiences.
S. Freud considered altruistic impulses as neurotic compensation for repressed impulses of the opposite egoistic orientation.
His daughter A. Freud understands altruistic motivation as motivations censored and distorted by the action of a whole system of defense mechanisms. Moreover, as the initial motives of altruism, she identifies
and the possibility of satisfying forbidden instinctual desires without the pressure of the Superego, namely through the projection of these desires onto the social Other
b the possibility of defusing the aggressive impulses accompanying these drives.
K. Horney and E. Fromm see the basis of altruism as a way for a person to cope with his neurotic anxiety that arises as a result of the fundamental disunity and separation of people from each other. At the same time, altruism ensures receipt of public approval and is socially in a safe way behavior that, through empathy and identification, binds people together.
According to B.I. Ilyin, the motive of altruism is manifested in sympathy in meeting the needs of the helpless in the desire to patronize, console, protect, care, calm and heal those who need it. Altruism manifests itself according to one’s own conviction without any pressure from outside and is based on the moral standards of society.
So, in a general sense, altruism is a type of social behavior of a person focused on selfless help to others and associated with possible losses for the person himself. Altruistic should be understood as behavior aimed at the benefit of another person or social association not associated with any external rewards.
Altruistic orientation is of a generally humane nature and can manifest itself in a wide variety of life situations without being strictly connected with the subject’s membership in a particular community. E. E. Nasinovskaya believes that the bearer of altruistic motivation is capable of showing altruism not only in relation to any social association of which he is a member, but even to unfamiliar persons and communities in which he is not really included. In contrast to the collectivist, the altruistic orientation is of a general humanistic nature; it refers to deeply personal characteristics and is capable of manifesting itself in a wide variety of life situations. For example, a subject may provide assistance and support to a stranger or act in the interests of a group of people of which he is not a real member. The principle of altruism plays a significant role in the formation of the moral character of an individual.
There are three approaches to studying altruism. The first approach developed in line with sociological social psychology. It is based on Herbert Blumer's concept of symbolic interactionism. According to him, society is defined as the symbolic interaction of individuals. People act based on the meanings they attribute to things. The meaning of any thing arises in the process of interaction in which a person enters with another person. Meaning does not belong to things in themselves; they emerge through human transactions. From this point of view, altruism is based on the psychological theory of social exchange.
The second approach is sociological. The author of phenomenological sociology, Alfred Schutz, emphasized that society develops in the process of spiritual interaction between people. Therefore, social action is the meaningful behavior of a person in his spiritual interaction with other people. In line with the sociological approach, altruism is considered in line with the action of two social norms of reciprocity and social responsibility.
A third approach to understanding altruism is offered by evolutionary psychology. Within the framework of evolutionary theory, selfless behavior is explained by innate mechanisms of protection of the species and the search for mutual benefit.
1.2. Psychological motives of altruistic behavior
The concept of altruistic behavior is inseparable from the internal motivation of this form of activity, because altruistic is understood only as selfless helping actions that do not promise the subject any external rewards or encouragements, in other words, altruistic behavior is non-pragmatic in its essence. Beyond altruism are forms of helping behavior based on selfish calculations and actions related to considerations of the costs and benefits of the good deeds performed. The scope of actual altruistic manifestations also does not include acts of assistance carried out at the level of regulation of a social-normative type. These include
Firstly, stereotyped manifestations of help, cultural habits, rules of etiquette, which constitute, as it were, the operational composition of a prosocial style of behavior.
Secondly, social-normative prosocial actions that are not strictly altruistic include acts of assistance carried out in accordance with external social requirements - expectations and not at the level of internal personal determinants. Examples of such external fulfillment of social norms with the supportive influence of the environment include helping actions in response to a demonstration of a model of help, following the norm of reciprocity, paying for a service with a service, fulfilling the norm of responsibility in accordance with the behavior expected of a person, a temporary increase in the prosociality of members of a group living on the principle of here and now.
Analysis of theoretical works and data from experimental studies of domestic and foreign psychologists on the problems of altruistic behavior confirms the reality of the existence of altruistic motives as independent mental formations. However, revealing the content of the motive of selfless help or the motive of benefit for another, some researchers interpret this motive as an internalized altruistic norm, while others interpret it as a manifestation of effective empathy or sympathy. Thus, there are two main approaches to understanding the motivational nature of altruistic behavior
1 personal-normative on the part of moral norms and moral beliefs of individuals
2 emotional from the analysis of the role of altruistic emotions - empathy empathy sympathy in the implementation of altruistic behavior. Most researchers carry out either personal-normative or emotional approach to the analysis of motivational determinants of altruistic behavior, and most often these approaches exclude each other. The most promising attempts to synthesize both aspects are S. Schwartz, H. Heckhausen, E. Karylovsky.
One possible explanation for altruistic motivation comes from social exchange theory. People exchange not only material values, things like money, but also social values ​​such as love, services, information and status. During this exchange, people often use a mini-max strategy. That is, people try to minimize their own costs and get the maximum possible reward. Social exchange theory assumes that such reasoning often predicts human behavior.
Before taking any action, a person considers how much he will be useful results action, for example, to help another person or not. According to social exchange theory, a person hopes to receive something in return for his action, material or psychological rewards. Social psychologists have tried to track whether helping others is actually part of disguised selfishness.
In the concept of altruism as disguised egoism, the reward that motivates the provision of help can be external and internal. For example, if a bank donates money to charity to increase the confidence of potential depositors. We are talking about external rewards here. Also, when a neighbor takes matches with another neighbor, then here we are also talking about gratitude or friendship, that is, about external reward.
People give something in order to subsequently receive material or psychological dividends. Even when helping a stranger, a person expects his approval and good memory of himself. Expressing sympathy for another person can also conceal internal self-reward - a positive self-perception of oneself. This can apply to many cases when a donor donates a significant portion of blood or when he leaves a good tip to the waiter, etc.
For six years 1993-1999, social psychologists M. Snyder and A. Omoto Jill Claire studied the motivation of volunteers who help AIDS patients. They found several reasons for providing assistance.
Ethical reasons: the desire to act in accordance with universal human values ​​and to show concern for others.
Cognitive reasons: the desire to learn more about the disease or acquire skills to support the patient.
Social reasons to gain membership in a certain group to earn approval to use the acquired experience and useful contacts for further career growth.
Increased self-esteem, increased self-esteem and self-confidence, protect one's self from feelings of guilt or escape from personal problems.
Social exchange theory views altruism as selfishness in disguise. If you look to get to the bottom of the true reasons for each altruistic act, you can see disguised personal benefits, psychological and material.
This interpretation of altruism has its own weak side. Proponents of this theory constantly compare altruism and egoism. However, selfishness is the motivation of behavior aimed at obtaining personal gain, ignoring the interests of others or acting contrary to them. In this case, is it necessary to compare the concepts of altruism and egoism?
Sometimes the basis of altruism really lies in disguised egoism, and often in developing deep psychological experiences, a feeling of reproach from the conscience, fear of a person’s disrespect for himself. These feelings are developmental because they are strong deep psychological motivators for improving the social nature of a person by impetus for the formation of his social position.
Let's consider the concept of altruism as a human state of mind. Social psychologist Daniel Bateson believes that the willingness to help others can be a consequence of two different personality positions. He assumes that a person may be disturbed by his own deep psychological states of remorse, etc. as well as empathic experiences.
On the one hand, one’s own mental discomfort “triggers” a mechanism based on the underlying motives of the homeostasis of one’s own mental balance. This endocentric intrinsic motivation is a reaction to someone else's misfortune. The main thing here is self-soothing. Helping another person allows you to find a sense of your own balance. On the other hand, empathy and compassion for another person can also “trigger” the mechanism of altruism. Here exocentric socio-psychological motivation is triggered; empathy allows you to calm the other person and help him.
“Pure” altruism, according to D. Batson, comes into play when we feel empathy towards someone who needs help. According to the empathic pleasure hypothesis, empathy leads to prosocial behavior because the helping person anticipates pleasant feelings after achieving a particular outcome.
People experience empathy when someone close to them suffers, parents, children, relatives. Empathy manifests itself in relation to those with whom a person identifies. For example, you can experience empathy for your idol, singer, actor, politician.
In September 1997, the British Princess Diana was mourned by millions of people who perceived her as loved one thanks to hundreds of newspaper articles and reports. At the same time, the grief of other people who live nearby may hardly be experienced. Indeed, as the classic noted, it is easier to love humanity than one’s neighbor.
CHAPTER II. PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF FORMATION OF ALTRUISTIC MOTIVATION OF PERSONALITY
2.1. Factors influencing the formation of altruistic motivation
The biological direction of the origin of altruism denies the possibility of the formation and development of this quality.
A rigorous natural scientific explanation of the origin of human altruism was first presented by Charles Darwin in his work The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection. C. Darwin and subsequently P.A. Kropotkin, who actively developed his ideas, provide evidence that egoism comes from the animal instinct of self-preservation, while altruism stems from the instinct to preserve the type of instinct of “social self-preservation”.
It is on this natural basis that human morality itself is built - “moral feeling” as Charles Darwin designated it. Altruism therefore turns out to be a natural prerequisite for morality and humanity and, in addition, plays an important role in the evolution of man as a species.
The biological view on the problem of the formation of altruism was reflected in G. Spencer, who considered altruism as an adaptive quality that arises in the course of natural evolution in the psychoanalytic concept of S. Freud, who believed that altruistic impulses are neurotic compensation for impulses of the opposite direction - primitive egoism, which was repressed by the geneticist F. G. Dobzhansky, who believed that altruistic feelings are “genetically programmed” in the individual and thereby contribute to the survival of the species in the struggle for existence. According to V. Efroimson, the emotions of humanity, kindness, caring attitude towards children, old people and women inevitably developed under the influence of natural selection and were part of the fund of hereditary characteristics.
The biological point of view is opposed by another position, most fully stated by I.P. Pavlov, who considered “true altruism to be the acquisition of culture” associated with the second signaling system and if it is weak, then “concern for one’s own skin will certainly be in the foreground.” The practice of educational work confirms the correctness of the views of the great physiologist; a high culture of feelings is not inherited; it must be formed from the moment the child is born. “The genetic basis of altruism is present, according to V. Ya. Semke, as a biological prerequisite for the potential possibility of education.”
E.E. Nasinovskaya points out the possibility of forming an altruistic motivation of an individual “The altruistic motive itself is formed under the conditions of a special method of education when the development of the subject’s empathic abilities is strongly encouraged while simultaneously organizing real acts of help in relation to those in need. The condition for the action of the actual altruistic motive is an orientation towards the state of the object of help and a sympathetic attitude towards it. IN in this case there is a coincidence of the motive and purpose of the activity... The motive of moral self-respect is a derivative of normative education associated with self-esteem and ideals of the individual. Altruistic behavior carried out in accordance with this motive is one of the means of achieving moral self-respect and maintaining self-esteem, which the subject or seeks to avoid possible violation moral self-esteem in the case of failure to carry out an altruistic action, this manifests the preventive function of the motive or the compensatory function of the motive seeks to eliminate the moral dissonance that has already arisen. At the same time, the person maintains an egocentric orientation, striving to receive a kind of internal “moral reward” for his action.
Modern psychologists confirm the need to work on oneself to cultivate altruism. “In order for a subject to become capable of acts of transfinite altruism, he must form a readiness for genuine altruistic behavior; moreover, he must be in permanent spiritual growth. Only then will he be able to carry out the function of self-transcendence and psychic integration with the world. Readiness for genuine altruistic behavior must be formed in a child from childhood, and in adulthood it must be self-educated. It is also necessary to increase your own awareness and sensitivity to various manifestations The id is to develop the ability to resist the pressure of the Superego. In this case, the subject’s ego becomes more mature and permeable to the impulses of the unconscious and the directives of the normative authority. Such a process of spiritual growth will ensure readiness for the formation of mature altruism without any neurotic manifestations and without extreme degrees of coercion.”
In his study, L.N. Antilogova convincingly substantiates that the formation and development of an altruistic personality orientation is especially necessary for representatives of those professions whose activities involve working with people. At the same time, the starting point for the formation of altruism is the development of the ability to identify with another person and the ability to put oneself in the place of another in various situations.
In the work of I.V. Mangutova shows that the corresponding formative influence can be presented in the form of a model that includes mechanisms of awareness of the experience of empathy, individual and collective practical actions and practical altruistic activity. The approach to the formation of altruistic relationships presented in the study involves the inclusion of formative influence in the general context of the moral education of the younger generation.
Modern researchers recognize that the nature of altruistic relationships is dual in nature, while the innate altruistic inclinations for their formation as altruistic relationships of the individual must be realized in unity with the formative influence of educational work, including in the process of self-education.
2.2. Motives of moral duty and sympathy
Altruistic motivation is always an internal personal-semantic motivation described by the concept of a meaning-forming motive. The environment of internal motivational mechanisms of actual altruistic content should be distinguished between two motives that are semantic determinants of altruism - the motive of moral duty and the motive of sympathy.
The motive of moral duty in relation to altruistic actions is a consequence of the normative education of the individual and is formed on the basis of the internalization of altruistic social norms turning into internal imperatives and personal and semantic regulators of activity. The leading feeling in this type of motivation is a sense of responsibility for one’s actions to oneself and other people.
B.P. Ilyin notes that a person with a moral duty commits altruistic acts for the sake of moral satisfaction, self-respect, pride, increased moral self-esteem, avoidance or elimination of distortion of the moral aspects of the self-concept of self-image, while treating the object of help differently and even sometimes negatively. Help is sacrificial in nature. People with a moral duty, and these are mainly people of the authoritarian type, are characterized by increased personal responsibility.”
The action of this motive is directly related to the area of ​​moral self-esteem. Its implementation is accompanied by positive feelings of moral satisfaction, self-esteem, pride, and increased self-esteem. Frustration, the impossibility of realizing this motive is associated with a feeling of dishonesty, unworthiness of one’s behavior, and decreased self-esteem. These moral feelings perform two specific functions in relation to altruistic behavior
preventive when the consequences of providing or not providing assistance are anticipated
compensatory when an altruistic act is used as a means of restoring a lost sense of moral balance and well-being.
Comprehension of the internal states of the mental world of the object of help is not necessary for motivation of this type; however, activity can be carried out in the presence of an ambivalent attitude towards the object of help and even with a clearly negative attitude towards it. Helping behavior determined solely by this motive is sacrificial in nature.
The motive of sympathy, based on the development of a person’s identification and empathic abilities, is the second and very significant semantic determinant of altruism. The realization of the motive of sympathy is impossible without mentally putting oneself in the place of a person in need of help without the process of empathizing with him.
A person with moral sympathy exhibits altruism in connection with the identification-empathic fusion of identification with empathy, but sometimes does not come to action. His altruistic manifestations are unstable.
We are talking about the motive of sympathy when the manifestation of sympathy in response to the plight of another acts as a stable and natural tendency of behavior.
Sympathy involves not only understanding the other and empathy for his condition, but also empathy for the possible improvement of the condition of the recipient of the object of help, i.e. has a proactive, anticipatory character, inducing an act of assistance.
The mechanism of sympathy is based on identification-empathic interaction i.e. the merging of the identification of the internal state of the subject into the object of help, the temporary erasure of the boundary between the Self and the other Self. Let us note that the carrier of the motivation of sympathy can reveal an emotional-centric orientation when the activity of sympathy breaks off at the emotional level and does not find a way out in the open behavior of sympathetic but not helping subjects. In this case, the subject, as it were, goes beyond the boundaries of his Self and joins the life and state of another only to return to himself again and immerse himself in narcissism with his refined humane experiences - the intrinsic value for a person of these experiences.
At the same time, when the motive of sympathy plays a significant role in determining the actual activity of assistance, it deprives it of its sacrificial character because internal identification with the object of help presupposes the merging of the good for another and the good for oneself.
The most altruistic are subjects with a harmonious representation in the personality structure of both meaning-forming motives when the motives of duty and sympathy act equally strongly in situations appealing to help.
2.3. Socio-psychological properties of the personality of people with an altruistic orientation
Let's consider the socio-psychological qualities of a person with an altruistic orientation.
An altruist reacts to a situation spontaneously in accordance with his ethical rules and norms. An important personality trait predisposing to altruistic behavior is a predisposition to empathy for a person in need of help - empathy. The more a person is inclined to empathy, the higher his readiness to help in a particular case.
According to J. Brown and other psychologists, empathy can manifest itself in two forms: empathy and sympathy. Empathy is the subject’s experience of the same feelings that another is experiencing. Sympathy is a responsive, sympathetic attitude towards the misfortune of another, an expression of regret, condolences, etc.
The first is considered by T.P. Gavrilov is based more on his past experience and is associated with the need for his own well-being with his own interests; the second is based on an understanding of the disadvantage of another person and is associated with his needs and interests. Hence empathy is more impulsive and more intense than sympathy.
Sympathy does not always reflect empathy; it can even be expressed dispassionately simply out of politeness, “Yes, I understand that this is unpleasant, but it doesn’t concern me.”
In addition, L.P. Kalinsky and co-authors believe that when separating empathic reactions, it would be more accurate to talk not so much about the criterion of multidirectional needs as about the degree of emotional involvement of one’s “I” during such a reaction. They believe that empathy is more of an individual property as it is associated with such a typological feature as weakness of the nervous system and empathy with willpower - the degree of success of social learning.
S. Schwartz and G. Clausen showed that readiness to provide help is more pronounced in people with an internal locus of control who perceive themselves as active subjects of action.
E. Staub notes the positive role of the level of moral development and the negative role of Machiavellianism - neglect of moral principles in order to achieve a goal and readiness to provide help.
Altruistic manifestations make it possible to determine the direction of a person’s actions and, consequently, his moral consciousness, to limit cases when the apparent altruism of actions hides the achievement of one’s own narrowly selfish goals.
B.I. Dodonov established that, for example, with a gnostic orientation of a personality, its properties are arranged in the following order: intelligence, hard work, responsiveness. With an altruistic orientation, they are arranged differently: responsiveness, hard work, intelligence. This does not mean, as T.P. rightly notes, Gavrilov that a person with altruistic aspirations does not work and does not learn. He most often finds a business in which he realizes his altruistic inclinations.
Altruism as a phenomenon is associated with certain altruistic experiences of a person participating in a kind of regulation of his activity, making adjustments to its course. A number of works have established an inextricable connection between the presence of an altruistic motive in the hierarchy of motives and a stable specific form emotional response. The dominant altruistic motive also gives rise to specific emotional experiences corresponding to it, which are in the nature of a stable emotional response. This situation is in good agreement with the data obtained in the studies of L.I. Bozhovich B.I. Dodonova Ya.Z. Neverovich and other authors. So B.I. Dodonov argues that a person’s persistent need for the good of another is reflected in the tendency to experience altruistic emotions. If this need is not satisfied, a person experiences a painful state.
So, altruistic behavior is determined by the presence in a person of a number of personal dispositions: compassion, caring, a sense of duty, responsibility, and the absence of qualities that are not conducive to the manifestation of altruism, suspicion, greed, skepticism. Altruistic behavior is characterized by the subject’s experience of his action as dictated by internal necessity and not contrary to his interests.
CONCLUSION
So, among the varieties of social behavior that allows people to feel their spiritual community and solidarity in achieving happiness and well-being, altruism occupies a prominent place. Altruism or helping others is a behavioral quality diametrically opposed to selfishness. An altruistic person is ready to selflessly help without expecting anything in return.
Our analysis allows us to conclude that there is a sufficient variety of theoretical ideas about altruism and its emergence. We can distinguish three explanatory principles of this concept that are not mutually exclusive. According to the first of them, altruism is a consequence of the emotional reaction of empathy, while the latter is understood as an affective connection with another person, as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, sharing his experiences.
According to the second principle, altruism arises as a result of the influence of social moral norms on the subject. They are presented to a person mainly in the form of other people's expectations regarding his possible behavior. Being inextricably linked with society, the subject, even in the absence of observers, will behave in accordance with accepted norms of behavior.
According to the third principle, altruism is motivated by so-called personal norms, which are understood as an insufficiently clearly defined reality, appearing either in the form of the subject’s self-expectations, or in the form of social norms that he has learned and processed, or in the form of value orientations or social attitudes.
It can be stated that the manifestation of altruism is most often associated with two motives: moral duty and moral sympathy. A person with a moral duty performs altruistic acts for the sake of moral satisfaction, self-respect, pride, increased moral self-esteem, avoidance or elimination of distortion of the moral aspects of the self-concept of self-image, while treating the object of help in completely different and even sometimes negative ways. Help is sacrificial in nature and “takes you away from yourself.” People with a pronounced degree of moral duty, and these are mainly people of the authoritarian type, are characterized by increased personal responsibility.
A person with moral sympathy exhibits altruism in connection with the identification-empathic fusion of identification with empathy, but sometimes does not come to action. His help is not sacrificial in nature; altruistic manifestations are unstable due to a possible decrease in identification and increase in personal responsibility. The condition for the manifestation of altruism is a focus on the state of the object of help and a sympathetic attitude towards it. In this case, the motive and purpose of the activity coincide. The motive of moral self-respect is a derivative of normative education associated with self-esteem and personal ideals. Altruistic behavior carried out in accordance with this motive is one of the means of achieving moral self-respect, preserving self-esteem, and the subject either seeks to avoid a possible violation of moral self-esteem in the event of failure to carry out an altruistic action; this manifests the preventive function of the motive or seeks to eliminate the already arisen moral dissonance; the compensatory function of the motive
In conclusion, we note that sometimes altruism is indeed based on disguised egoism, and often on developing deep psychological experiences, a feeling of reproach from conscience, fear of a person’s disrespect for himself. However, these feelings are developmental because they are strong deep psychological motivators for improving the social nature of a person by impetus for the formation of his social position.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abramenkova V.V. Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don “PHOENIX”. — 1998.
2. Antilogova L.N. Altruism and its role in professional activity social worker L.N. Antilogova Social work in Siberia Executive editor N.I. Morozova. - Kemerovo 2004. - P. 35 - 45.
3. Bobneva M.I. Social norms and regulation of behavior. Psychological problems of social regulation of behavior. - M. 1976. - P. 144 - 171.
4. Large psychological dictionary. - M. Prime-EUROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova acad. V.P. Zinchenko.- 2003.
5. Bozhovich L. I. Personality and its formation in childhood. - M. 1968.
6. Bozhovich L.I. Konnikova T.E. On the moral development and upbringing of children. Questions of psychology. - 1975. - 3. - P. 78 - 93.
7. Gavrilova T. P. On the education of moral feelings. - M. 1984.
8. Dodonov B.I. Emotional relationships, orientation and corresponding personality properties. Questions of philosophy. - 1974. - 6. - P. 3 - 10.
9. Dodonov B.I. Emotions as a value Social sciences. — 1979. — . 4. - pp. 131 - 133.
10. Ilyin E.P. Motivation and motives of E.P. Ilyin. - St. Petersburg. Peter 2004. - P. 174 - 221.
11. Keiselman Dorozhkin V.R. Altruism is the so-called good. – Simferopol. “Tavria” 2010. – 348 p.
12. Leontyev D. A. Autonomy and self-determination as an object of psychological diagnostics Vopr. psychology. - 2007. - 1. - P. 66-85
13. Makarenko A. S. About communist education. - M. 1953.
14. Nasinovskaya E. E. Study of personal motivation using hypnosis. - M. 1982.
15. Neverovich Ya. Z. The role of emotions in prosocial motivation of behavior in children Abstract. scientific reports of Soviet psychologists to the XX International. psychol. conf. - M. 1976. - P. 209 - 211.
16. Ozhegov S.I. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language RAS Russian Cultural Foundation. S.I. Ozhegov N.Yu. Shvedova. – M. AZ 1995. – 928 p.
17. Pines E. Maslach K. Workshop on social psychology E. Pines K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. Peter 2000. - 528 p.
18. Petrovsky A.V. Once again about the stability of personality, independence and conformity. — Questions of psychology. - 1975. - 2. - P.58 - 62.
19. Petrovsky V. A. Personality in psychology - the paradigm of subjectivity. - Rostov nD Phoenix 1996. - 512 p.
20. Sokolova E. T. Projective techniques. - M. 1980.
21. Sobkin V. S. Towards the formation of ideas about the mechanisms of the identification process in communication. Theoretical and applied problems of the psychology of how people know each other. - Krasnodar 1975. - P. 55 - 57.
22. Semke V. Ya. Know how to control yourself or Conversations about a healthy and sick personality. — Novosibirsk 1991.
23. Chudnovsky V. E. Moral stability of personality. - M. 1981.
24. Efroimson V.P.. Pedigree of altruism Ethics from the standpoint of human evolutionary genetics V.P. Efroimson [Electronic resource] - Access mode
25. Yakobson S. G. Analysis of psychological mechanisms for regulating the ethical behavior of children. Questions of psychology. - 1979. - 1. - P. 38 - 48.

Due to the specific nature of the work of a social worker special place It is occupied by such a personality quality as altruism.

The term “altruism” was first introduced by O. Comte, who formed the principle of “revile pour outre” - to live for others. The scientist distinguished between the instinctive altruism inherent in animals, which unites the individual and the species and is then destroyed by civilization, and altruism, which arises and develops within its framework and ultimately turns into a spontaneous innate property that unites all people.

The biological view on the problem of altruism was reflected in G. Spencer, who considered altruism as an adaptive quality that arises in the course of natural evolution; in the psychoanalytic concept of S. Freud, who believed that altruistic impulses are neurotic compensation for impulses of the opposite direction - primitive egoism, subjected to repression; the geneticist F. G. Dobzhansky, who believed that altruistic feelings are “genetically programmed” in the individual and thereby contribute to the survival of the species in the struggle for existence; by V. Efroimson, who understood altruism as “the entire group of emotions that motivates a person to perform actions that are directly disadvantageous and even dangerous for him personally, but that benefit other people.”

According to V. Efroimson, the emotions of humanity, kindness, caring attitude towards children, old people and women inevitably developed under the influence of natural selection and were part of the fund of hereditary characteristics.

The biological point of view is opposed by another position, set out most fully by I.P. Pavlov, who considered “real altruism to be the acquisition of culture” associated with the second signaling system, and if it is weak, then “concern for one’s own skin will certainly be in the foreground.” The practice of educational work confirms the correctness of the views of the great physiologist: a high culture of feelings is not inherited, it must be formed from the moment the child is born. “The genetic basis of altruism is present, according to V. Ya. Semke, as a biological prerequisite, a potential opportunity for education.”

Today there is no generally accepted definition of altruism. In foreign psychology, a widespread definition of this phenomenon is based on “the intention to create relief or improve the situation for another in need,” and altruistic behavior is understood as behavior in which “a person acts, assuming that thanks to his actions, the recipient will eliminate unwanted state" .

Close to our understanding of this phenomenon is the definition, the authors of which consider altruistic behavior when “they help others without expecting to receive any external reward for this.”

IN domestic psychology the study of altruism is carried out mainly in line with the problems of collectivism or the collectivist orientation of the individual.

In other words, in relevant psychological developments, aspects of altruism are considered as reflecting the subject’s focus on protecting the interests of society as a whole or its individual groups.

We believe that the connection between the concepts of “altruism” and “collectivism” drawn by domestic psychologists has quite good grounds. Thus, M.I. Bobneva, speaking about the process of formation of moral qualities of an individual and her social motives, among the latter names the motives of collectivism and altruism, that is, she considers them side by side.

E. E. Nasinovskaya believes that a bearer of altruistic motivation is capable of showing altruism not only in relation to any social association of which he is a member, but even towards unfamiliar persons and communities in which he is not actually included. Unlike the collectivist, the altruistic orientation is of a general humanistic nature, relates to deeply personal characteristics, and can manifest itself in a wide variety of life situations.

Thus, the concept of “altruism” appears to be in a complementary relationship with “collectivism,” in some cases specifying the latter.

Altruism in philosophical and ethical literature is understood as a principle consisting of selfless service to other people, a willingness to sacrifice personal interests for their benefit. There are clearly two parts to this definition. And if the first, expressing the essence of altruism (selfless help to another person), does not raise objections, then the second requires some clarification.

We believe that it would be more correct to focus in the definition of altruism not on the moment of sacrifice, but on the moment of the absence of practical benefit or reward for the acting subject. Firstly, as rightly noted in the psychological literature, truly altruistic behavior is not always characterized by sacrifice for the benefit of another. Altruistic behavior, as a rule, is characterized by the fact that the subject experiences his act as dictated by internal necessity and not contrary to his interests. Secondly, behavior that requires the subject to clearly observe from the outside and clearly express sacrifice for the needs of another is carried out relatively rarely, while behavior that does not coincide with the person’s personal needs and does not promise him reward is implemented quite often.

Our analysis of the literature allows us to conclude that there is a sufficient variety of theoretical ideas about altruism and its emergence. We can distinguish three explanatory principles of this concept, which are not mutually exclusive. According to the first of them, altruism is a consequence of the emotional reaction of empathy, while the latter is understood as an affective connection with another person, as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, sharing his experiences.

According to the second principle, altruism arises as a result of the influence of social moral norms on the subject. They are presented to a person mainly in the form of other people's expectations regarding his possible behavior. Being inextricably linked with society, the subject, even in the absence of observers, will behave in accordance with accepted norms of behavior.

According to the third principle, altruism is motivated by so-called personal norms, which are understood as an insufficiently clearly defined reality, appearing either in the form of the subject’s self-expectations, or in the form of social norms learned and processed by him, or in the form of value orientations or social attitudes.

Let's look at each of these principles. As for the role of emotional components “in the implementation of altruistic behavior,” it seems indisputable. At the same time, two other principles are questionable. First of all, moral norms themselves are unlikely to contribute to the emergence of altruistic behavior. To do this, they must necessarily be accepted and processed by the subject. But in this case, isolating personal norms, understood as processed social norms, does not solve the problem of determining and considering the internal determinants of altruistic behavior. It is appropriate to remember, therefore, that so-called personal norms are often interpreted as personality attitudes. This interpretation is quite consistent with the traditional idea of ​​attitude as a readiness to act in a certain way.

In this regard, we suggest that altruistic behavior can be adequately understood in the light of theoretical ideas about the hierarchical nature of the attitude, based on activity theory, according to which each activity is stimulated and directed by a motive representing a certain need.

Motives are reflected in a person’s consciousness, but not always adequately, and in this case they can only be studied indirectly - through a psychological analysis of the content of the activity. But in activities in different situations, two indirect forms of reflection of reality are manifested in different ways and to varying degrees - meaning and personal meaning. If “meanings represent the ideal form of existence of the objective world, its properties, connections and relationships, revealed by cumulative social practice, transformed and folded in the matter of language,” then personal meaning is a product of the reflection of the world by a specific subject, formed in his individual activity and expressed in his (of the subject) in relation to the phenomena perceived by the subject.

Thanks to personal meaning, objective meaning is associated with the real life of the subject, with the motives of his activity, and partiality and subjectivity of human consciousness are created. Thus, every situation, object or phenomenon appears for the subject and is reflected by him in two ways. In conditions when a situation, object or phenomenon that has a certain meaning is reflected, and when goal formation is not difficult, the subject interprets them in accordance with their objective meaning. But if the situation is sufficiently uncertain, then in such cases their personal meaning, their significance for the subject, comes to the fore. This uniqueness of personal meaning is emphasized by A. N. Leontyev. He wrote the following about this: “In the event that goal setting is impossible under existing objective conditions and not a single link in the subject’s activity can be realized, then this motive remains only potential - existing in the form of readiness, in the form of an attitude.”

In other words, in an uncertain situation, personal meaning is activated, prompting the subject to be ready to act in a certain way, in accordance with his value orientations, prevailing tendencies, etc., that is, in accordance with what is most adequately expressed in the concept of “attitude”, which, according to the ideas of A.G. Asmolov, is a stabilizer of activity, without which “activity could not exist as an independent system capable of maintaining stability and direction of movement.”

In the light of A. G. Asmolov’s theoretical ideas about the hierarchical level nature of the attitude as a psychological mechanism for stabilizing activity, four levels of attitudinal regulation of activity are distinguished, corresponding to the structure of activity: the level of semantic attitudes, the level of goal attitudes, the level of operational attitudes and the level of psychophysiological mechanisms - regulators of attitude in activity . The level of semantic attitudes is the leading one in the hierarchical structure of activity regulation.

Meaningful attitudes are caused by the motive of activity and express personal meaning in it in the form of readiness to maintain the direction of activity as a whole. Their essential feature is that to change them it is necessary to include the subject in a new activity.

The criterion for identifying the next level of attitudinal regulation of activity is the presence of a goal of action. The goal, being presented in the form of an image of a conscious prediction of the result, actualizes the subject’s readiness to achieve it and thereby determines the direction of the action. The goal setting is understood as the subject’s readiness to do, first of all, what is in accordance with the goal facing him, which arises after accepting a certain task. From the above, it becomes clear that the distinguishing criterion for separating the level of semantic attitudes from the target level is the presence of a goal for the latter, presented in the “form of an image of a conscious, foreseen result.”

Target settings correspond to the purpose of the action and perform the function of its stabilization. Operational settings are determined by the conditions for the implementation of the action. On their basis, stable behavioral stereotypes are formed.

According to our ideas, the implementation of altruistic behavior is carried out through semantic altruistic attitudes, which are revealed most clearly in uncertain situations given to a person, where he is given the opportunity to choose the most specific ways of responding to him. It is logical to assume that since an uncertain situation is relevant to the projection of various attitudes, then under these conditions there will be an actualization of attitudes corresponding to the altruistic motive, that is, an altruistic semantic attitude realized in the corresponding altruistic activity, by which we mean the humanistically oriented activity of the subject to help those in need in it to a person, prompted by selfless motivation, consistent with the interests of other people (groups, the whole society) and accompanied by specific altruistic experiences.

We call the subject's readiness to carry out such activities an altruistic attitude. The formation of altruistic attitudes in a subject may indicate a high level of development of his moral consciousness.

Without pretending to have a complete understanding of the essence of altruism, we will try to highlight its distinctive properties.

Firstly, this phenomenon allows us to identify the internal motivational plan of actions and deeds carried out by people. IN individual studies It was found that behind the unambiguity of external manifestations of altruistic, as well as moral behavior in general, various motives may lie: altruistic and motives of moral self-respect. “The altruistic motive itself is formed under the conditions of a special method of education, when the development of the subject’s empathic abilities is encouraged in every possible way while simultaneously organizing real acts of help towards those in need. The condition for the action of the actual altruistic motive is an orientation towards the state of the object of help and a sympathetic attitude towards it. In this case, there is a coincidence of the motive and purpose of the activity... The motive of moral self-respect is a derivative of normative education and is associated with self-esteem and personal ideals. Altruistic behavior carried out in accordance with this motive is one of the means of achieving moral self-respect, preserving self-esteem, and the subject either seeks to avoid a possible violation of moral self-esteem in the event of failure to carry out an altruistic action (this manifests the preventive function of the motive), or seeks to eliminate an already the resulting moral dissonance (compensatory function of the motive). At the same time, the person maintains an egocentric orientation, striving to receive a kind of internal “moral reward” for his action.

Secondly, with the help of this phenomenon it is possible to determine the direction of a person’s actions, and, consequently, his moral consciousness, to delimit cases when the apparent altruism of actions hides the achievement of one’s own narrowly selfish goals. B.I. Dodonov established that, for example, with a gnostic orientation of a personality, its properties are arranged in the following order: intelligence, hard work, responsiveness. With an altruistic orientation, they are arranged differently: responsiveness, hard work, intelligence. This does not mean, as T. P. Gavrilova rightly notes, that a person with altruistic aspirations does not work and does not learn. He most often finds a business in which he realizes his altruistic inclinations.

Thirdly, the phenomenon under consideration is associated with certain altruistic experiences of a person, participating in a kind of regulation of his activity, making adjustments to its course. A number of works have established an inextricable connection between the presence of an altruistic motive in the hierarchy of motives and a stable, specific form of emotional response. The dominant altruistic motive also gives rise to specific emotional experiences corresponding to it, which are in the nature of a stable emotional response. This position is in good agreement with the data obtained in the studies of L. I. Bozhovich, T. E. Konnikova, B. I. Dodonov, Ya. Z. Neverovich and other authors. Thus, B.I. Dodonov argues that a person’s persistent need for the good of another is reflected in the tendency to experience altruistic emotions. If this need is not satisfied, the person experiences a painful state.

Having identified the main features that characterize altruism, and taking into account the fact that altruism is an indicator of the direction of a social worker’s activity, we made an attempt to measure it. For this purpose, we used the TAT, as well as the 16-factor questionnaire of R. Cattell, the test of O. F. Potemkina and others, guided by the fact that this phenomenon is a complex formation, including altruistic needs, attitudes and motives, from the formation of which depends on the direction of human activity.

The appeal to TAT was caused by the fact that the uncertainty of situations in the pictures presented to the subject allows him to choose the most specific modes of behavior for him, and the researcher, based on the actions carried out by the characters in the stories or the emotions they express, allows him to identify the true motives of the subject, which may be hidden or distorted by him when asking direct questions.

The use of TAT for the purpose of diagnosing manifestations of altruism required us to identify a number of its indicators. We included the following among them:

An individual’s manifestation of empathy towards another person;

The need of the individual to help someone who is in a difficult situation;

The readiness of subjects for joint actions with other participants in the activity.

Guided by these indicators and trying to determine the level of manifestation of altruism, we offered the subjects, who were students (future social workers) pedagogical university(102 people), a sample of ten tables taken from the classic TAT set. The numbers and order of presentation of the tables were as follows: 1; 2; 3 FG; 7 VM; 10; 8 VM; 18 FG; 15; 17 FG; 18 VM.

The selection of tables, based on assumptions that most often actualize altruistic tendencies in subjects, was carried out through expert assessment followed by empirical verification. The experimental procedure using TAT variants was standard.

To process TAT ​​stories, we used the content analysis method, the possibility of using which when interpreting these techniques has been repeatedly noted in the literature.

Based on the indicators of altruism that we identified and found in the projective products of TAT, the following main categories acted as adequately set goals in the study: A - the subject of the description (the one who is discussed in the story); B - description of the situation shown in the table (specifics of perception of situations); C - attitude towards the described characters (penetration into their inner world); D - the nature of the relationship between the characters in the story; E - assistance of the described characters to each other (moments of mutual assistance).

Next, using content analysis, we tracked the frequency of subjects’ use of categories in TAT stories and, based on this, as well as the previously mentioned indicators of altruism, we identified three groups of subjects with varying degrees of expression of altruistic attitudes: high, medium and low.

The analysis showed that the frequency of manifestation of categories in percentage terms is significantly higher in subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes compared to subjects with an average and low degree of their expression.

In the stories of the former, attempts to penetrate deeply into the inner world of the characters and reveal their feelings and experiences were much more often noted. The nature of the described relationships between the heroes was characterized by mutual assistance and mutual support.

The subjects of the first group often expressed thoughts about the need to benefit people, provide assistance and mutual assistance. These statements, as a rule, were not declarative in nature, but emotionally charged; the subjects’ interest in the inner world of their heroes was felt.

The stories of the subjects of the second group, although they were characterized by statements about help and the characters they described provided it to a person in need, but this happened sporadically and was not as widespread as in the first case. Attempts to penetrate into the inner world of their heroes were also not so frequent, and the descriptions were not deep and were superficial. If identification occurred with the character being described, it was, as a rule, the main character.

Subjects with a low degree of expression of altruistic attitudes very rarely expressed thoughts about the willingness to help the described characters to each other; penetration into their inner world practically did not occur. The descriptions were superficial, the events mainly unfolded around the main character.

The content analysis carried out allows us to establish that in the stories of subjects with high degree the severity of altruistic attitudes, much more often the characters are people who are not in close or related relationships with each other, while for subjects with a medium and low degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, either the main character or people closely related to him appear in their stories. Because of this, these subjects describe mainly from the position of the central character; only their close ones act as other people.

As for the subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, their stories highlight various characters on whose behalf the story is told. In this case, the person being tested seems to be trying to take the place of another person, trying to see the situation through his eyes, understand and accept the point of view different people. Their stories are characterized by the optimistic, life-affirming nature of the situations described, presented in the table; their characters are full of faith in justice, in goodness, in people, which was practically not observed, for example, among subjects with a low degree of manifestation of altruistic attitudes. The stories of the latter were pessimistic and sometimes cynical.

If the subjects of the first group were characterized by a desire to penetrate into the inner world of the characters, then the subjects of the second, and especially the third group were limited mainly to the external description of the main character, without showing much interest in his inner world. In the descriptions of the latter, there was almost no mention of actions taken for humane purposes, for the benefit of other people, society, which, on the contrary, was characteristic of the subjects of the first group, in whose stories the characters committed selfless acts that could improve the situation of other people; The described relationships between people were characterized by an emotionally positive connotation, manifestations of sympathy and empathy. In the stories of these subjects, the characters helped each other.

If we assume that the altruistic attitude is structural element altruistic behavior, then the degree of expression of the first indicates the level of development of the second, that is, we can talk about three levels of development or three types of manifestation of altruism.

First type was typical for subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, whose stories were distinguished by deep penetration into the inner world of their characters, empathy, and the desire to accept the position of their heroes; the latter were distinguished by close relationships and mutual assistance, regardless of the degree of proximity, and their behavior in general was characterized by an altruistic orientation. This type of altruism can be considered high-level.

Second type was characteristic of subjects with an average degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, the descriptions of which, like the previous ones, were distinguished by the desire of the subjects to reveal the inner world of their characters, while they themselves did not always share the position of their heroes. Empathy for the heroes was selective. The characters, although they interacted with each other, but the relationship between them was not as close as in the first case. Willingness to provide help to those in need was manifested only in relation to the character close to the hero, as a rule, a relative. This type We consider altruism to be mid-level.

Third type was noted in subjects with a low degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, who described both situations and characters from an ego-altruistic position, that is, penetration into the inner world of the hero occurred only when the subject identified himself with him, and this was, as a rule, the central character. The heroes' empathic manifestations were concentrated mainly on themselves, which is psychologically equivalent to empathy as the egoistic side of empathy. The stories showed weak connections between the characters (communicative, emotional relationships). Help was not provided by the central character, but, on the contrary, he received help from other people. We classified this type of altruism as low-level.

The differences in the types of altruistic mechanism we identified were analyzed using data from R. Cattell’s 16-factor questionnaire. As is known, this questionnaire reveals individual typological characteristics of personality, which makes it possible to establish the dependence of various levels of altruistic behavior on a person’s personal properties. Personality profiles according to R. Cattell's test (Fig.) are built on average indicators.

The figure shows that the profile of subjects with the first type of altruistic behavior is highly expressed in the following factors: A - extraversion - introversion; B - plasticity - rigidity; C - emotional stability - lability; Q 3 - high self-control - low self-control; G - conscientiousness - unprincipledness; N - courage - timidity. The following factors showed slightly lower values: N - flexibility - straightforwardness; Q 1 - radicalism - conservatism; J - pliability - cruelty; F - concern - carelessness. However, the indicators of these factors in individuals with the first type of altruistic behavior are higher than in individuals with other types of the phenomenon under consideration.

The data obtained indicate that a high level of altruism is ensured and depends on the influence external environment, emotional stability individual, stable volitional properties, volitional control, balanced actions, courage, flexibility in judgment. On the contrary, if increased anxiety (factor O), ergonal tension (factor Q 4), as well as excessive suspicion (factor L) are manifested, then this significantly reduces the manifestation of altruism.

Characteristic in this regard is the profile of subjects with the third type of altruistic behavior. They are characterized by a low level of control over the affective sphere, that is, low volitional regulation of this sphere (factor Q 3), indiscipline (factor G), high anxiety (factor O), tension (factor Q 4), and great suspicion (factor L). All these indicators allow us to conclude that subjects with this type of altruistic behavior have insufficiently stable altruistic attitudes, and this reduces the motivating power of this mechanism and its impact on the development of the moral consciousness of the individual.

We also traced the relationship between the identified types of altruistic mechanism and the types of relationships of the subjects to others (T. Leary’s method).

Subjects with the first type of altruistic behavior are characterized by friendliness, while subjects with the third type are characterized by aggressiveness. And finally, we studied the dependence of altruism on the type of socio-psychological attitudes of the individual in the motivational-need sphere (methodology of O. F. Potemkina). It was revealed that subjects with high level altruistic behavior (type 1) differ in their predominantly orientation towards altruistic values. Subjects with an average level of altruistic behavior (type 2) are characterized by a focus on results in various types activities, including altruistic ones. Low-level subjects (type 3) are process-oriented, that is, they can respond to the help of a person in need, but are not always able to complete the work they have begun.

Figure 1. Types of altruistic mechanisms and profiles according to R. Cattell’s test indicators

The types of altruistic behavior themselves are provided by the expressed individual-typological properties of the personality. These, first of all, include volitional properties, personality plasticity, flexibility in judgment, the ability to respond emotionally to external influences, courage, and conscientiousness. And on the contrary, the manifestation of altruistic behavior decreases if the individual has low volitional control over the affective sphere, high rigidity, greater stability of negative emotions, excessive suspicion, and self-directed interests.

Thus, our analysis of the data we obtained on the mutual influence of types of altruistic behavior and various psychological properties of a person showed that there is a close positive connection between them.

The conducted theoretical analysis and empirical data allow us to conclude that the formation and development of an altruistic personality orientation is especially necessary for people working with people. At the same time, in the words of V. A. Sukhomlinsky, “one should start with the elementary, but at the same time the most difficult thing - with the formation of the ability to sense the mental state of another person, to be able to put oneself in the place of another in a variety of situations... Those who are deaf to other people will remain deaf to himself: he will not have access to the most important thing in self-education - an emotional assessment of his own actions.”

We believe that this judgment can also be addressed to a social worker, on whose sensitivity, responsiveness, mercy, sympathy, empathy and sacrifice the health and well-being of the wards depend to a certain extent.

To develop altruism as a personality quality in future social workers, one can use such forms of work as trainings, role-playing and business games, analysis of specific situations that allow the future specialist to demonstrate his personal qualities in an active dialogue, with constant reflection to correct those unacceptable for future work and form those that will be in first demand.

So, altruism as selfless service to people, including altruistic needs, attitudes and motivation, as an indicator that determines the overall orientation of the individual, plays an important role in the professional activities of people engaged in the “person-to-person” sphere, and the formation and development of this quality is an important task for anyone preparing to devote themselves to social work.

Bibliography

Abramenkova V.V. The role of joint activity in the manifestation of humanity among preschoolers’ peers. - M., 1981.

Yakobson S. G. Analysis of psychological mechanisms for regulating ethical behavior of children // Questions of psychology. - 1979. - No. 1. - P. 38 - 48.

Bergius R., Gunter R., Limbourg M. Bedingungen altruistischen verhaltens von 4 - 9 Jaringen Kindern // Bericht uber den 29. Kongress der DGf Ps. - Gottingen, 1974. - Bd. 2. - S. 153 - 156.

Hornstein H. Promovior From a Levinian perspective.- J. Of. Soc. Issues, 1972. - N. 28. - P. 191 - 218.

Jarle M. Lerbuch der Sozialpsychologie. - Gottingen - Toronto-Zurich: Hogrife, 1975. - 558 s.

Karylowski J. Evaluation of othersactsasa funktion of self - other similarityandself - esteem. - Zeszyty, Maukowe Psycholodii Um, z.3 (Podred. J. Reykowskiego). - Warszawa, 1974. - P. 68 - 77.

Luck H. E. Prosozialis Verhalten Empirische Untersuchungen zur Hilfeleistung. - Koln: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1975. - 128 s.

Reykowski J. Nastawienia egocentryezne i nastawienia prospolecznie. - Egozentric and prosocial orientations // Osobowoca spoleznie zachowanie sie ludzi. Personality and the social behavior of man (Podred. J. Reykowskiego). - Warsawa, 1976. - S. 169 - 233).

Schwartz S. H. The Activation of personal norms and prosocial behavior: Paper delivered at the conference on Mechanisms of Prosocial Behavior. - Warsawa, 1974. - 30 p.

Werbik H. Teorie der Gewalt. Eine neue Grundlage fur die Aggressionsforschung. - Munchen: Fink, 1974. - 206 s.

Antilogova L.N. ,

The article was published in the collection “Social work in Siberia”. Collection of scientific papers. Kemerovo: Kuzbassvuzizdat, 2004 - 180 p. (p. 35 - 44)
ISBN 5-202-00663-2
The collection represents the result of work within the framework of the project “Development of a regional resource center in the field of psychology and social work” of the megaproject “Development of Education in Russia” of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) and includes materials prepared by experts in the field social work from the regions of Siberia and the Far East.
Publication is carried out in agreement with the editorial board and compilers of the collections.
Original publication on the portal of the Social Psychological Faculty of Kemerovo State University.
For questions regarding purchasing the collection, please contact: Andrey Viktorovich Sery (mail:

Psychology of help [Altruism, egoism, empathy] Ilyin Evgeniy Pavlovich

4.6. Motives for displaying altruism

The manifestation of altruism is associated with two motives: moral duty (MD) and moral sympathy (MC). A person with MD commits altruistic acts for the sake of moral satisfaction, self-respect, pride, increasing moral self-esteem (avoiding or eliminating the distortion of the moral aspects of the self-concept of self-image), while treating the object of help in completely different ways (and even sometimes negatively). Help is sacrificial in nature (“tears you away from yourself”). People with MD (and these are mainly people of the authoritarian type) are characterized by increased personal responsibility.

A person with MS exhibits altruism in connection with identification-empathic fusion, identification, empathy, but sometimes does not come to action. His help is not sacrificial in nature; altruistic manifestations are unstable due to a possible decrease in identification and increase in personal responsibility.

It has been established that 15% of people do not have these motives at all, the rest are approximately equally divided into those who have equal strength of both motives, and those for whom one of the motives predominates.

Selfless help to unrelated individuals is extremely rare. Many scientists believe that this property is unique to humans and is completely absent in animals. However, employees of the Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology named after. Max Planck (Leipzig, Germany) in a series of experiments showed that not only small children who do not yet know how to speak, but also young chimpanzees willingly help a person in a difficult situation, and they do it completely unselfishly.

The experiments involved 24 children aged 18 months and three young chimpanzees (three and four years old). Children and monkeys watched an adult trying in vain to cope with some task, and could help him if they had such a desire (but no one specifically pushed them to do this). They did not receive any reward for their help.

A distinctive feature of the altruistic motive is its selflessness. However, many people question the selflessness of the altruistic motive. For example, N. Naritsyn writes: “In a real society, where they live by their own labor, and not by handouts, where the time of a busy, working person costs money, altruism is virtually impossible. And if it is possible, then it becomes more and more suspicious. That is why more and more often people prefer to pay for everything: for borrowed money - with interest, for rented things or services - with money, etc. Because they do not want to “feel obligated”. For such a “duty” is one of the most important dangers of “altruism that does not exist.” Therefore, you should always be wary when someone (even a seemingly close relative) offers you help “for nothing”, and be even more wary the more significant this help is, the less pleasant it is for the one who is giving it to you for nothing offers. After all, it often happens that a person refuses to accept compensation for services because, instead of the same money, he wants to gain power over you or the opportunity to force you to work at any moment. And often at a much higher price than the service you received. After all, when he does something for you “out of pure altruism,” the situation changes dramatically: you are a humiliated petitioner, and he is your benefactor. Sometimes it’s much more expensive than “some kind of money”!”

Indeed, if you think about it, even parental care for their children cannot be considered selfless. For their care, parents demand at least respect for themselves, and often care for themselves when they reach old age. Hence the accusations against children of “black ingratitude”: “I dropped out of college for you, and you...”, etc.

Giving All, you wanted something in return. Most often unconsciously, but they wanted to. As a rule, in this case they also want All- in other words, another person's property. And when they don’t get it, they get offended, make claims, and make trouble. Why be offended? When you gave your “everything” to someone, you asked the person to whom you gave it: does he need this? And if necessary, is he willing to pay for it? yours, perhaps the price is too high for him?

Naritsyn N.

E. L. Dubko (2003), in an article devoted to the problem of motivating secret good deeds, believes that these actions indicate the existence of selfless motives based on anonymity (here we can add assistance to animals who find themselves in a difficult situation or misfortune; after all, from them we do not expect gratitude), which has been confirmed experimentally (Shotland, Stebins, 1983). Perhaps this is so, if we do not consider self-interest to be satisfaction from one’s action, appeasement of one’s conscience, increased self-esteem and other intangible dividends. Obviously, the whole point is how to understand selflessness.

D. Myers (2004) writes that “research results suggest that genuine altruism does exist”:

Empathy makes one help even members of rival groups, but only if the helper is confident that his help will not be rejected (Batson et al., 1997; Dovidio et al., 1990);

People in whom compassion has awakened will come to the rescue, even if no one will ever know about it. Their efforts will continue until the person in need of help receives it (Fult et al., 1986). And if these efforts are unsuccessful through no fault of theirs, they will still worry (Batson, Weeks, 1996);

In some cases, people persist in their desire to help a suffering person even when they think that they Bad mood- temporary result of a special action psychotropic drug(Schroeder et al., 1988);

If a person sympathizes with a sufferer, in order to do for him what he needs, he violates own rules and perceptions of integrity and fairness (Batson et al., 1997, 1999).

From the book Psychology of Self and defense mechanisms by Freud Anna

X. FORM OF ALTRUISM The mechanism of projection disrupts the connection between the ideational representations of dangerous instinctive impulses and the ego. In this it is very similar to the process of repression. Other defensive processes, such as displacement, turning, or fighting against oneself, influence

From the book Moral Animal by Wright Robert

From the book Needs, motives and emotions author Leontyev Alexey Nikolaevich

II. Motives The change and development of needs occurs through the change and development of objects that answer them and in which they are “objectified” and specified. The presence of a need is a necessary prerequisite for any activity, but the need itself

From the book How to Become Unhappy Without outside help by Vaclavik Paul

Chapter 12 TRAPS OF ALTRUISM Those who love always strive to come to the aid of their beloved. However, an intuitive, unconscious desire to help does not necessarily have to apply to the human being with whom you are connected by bonds of love or friendship. Quite the contrary,

From the book Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman

Empathy and Ethics: The Source of Altruism “Never send to find out for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for you.” This phrase is one of the most famous in all of English literature. John Donne's dictum goes to the core of the link between empathy and caring: suffering

From the book Love: from dusk to dawn. Resurrection of feelings author Fat Natalya

QUALIFIC MOTIVES How nice it would be if in the world there was only one reason for quarrels and disagreements! Or at least heels... But unfortunately for me, there are a lot of them, and each one drags the other along with it. Resentments and conflicts are intertwined and soldered into one dense stream and, as if

From the book Heart Protectors [Managing habits and attitudes that prevent you from becoming rich and enjoying life] by Kagan Marilyn

Chapter 9: Taking Care of Yourself: Slowing Down Altruism Altruism: Devoting yourself to something—whether it's spending time, money, or your own energy—that satisfies your wants and needs while simultaneously preventing them. Derived from the French "autrui"

From the book Psychological tips for every day author Stepanov Sergey Sergeevich

Motives for success It has long been noted that different people, performing similar actions, can be guided by different motives. For example, one enters a university to satisfy a thirst for knowledge, another - to have a prestigious job in the future, and a third - simply to avoid

From the book Honey and the Poison of Love author Rurikov Yuri Borisovich

One-sidedness of altruism. For many centuries they say that love consists entirely of altruism, self-denial. The great Hegel wrote about this: “The true essence of love is to renounce the consciousness of oneself, to forget oneself in another “I” and, however, in this same disappearance and

From the book Psychology of Help [Altruism, egoism, empathy] author Ilyin Evgeniy Pavlovich

4.2. Genesis of altruism There are different points of view on the question of the origin of altruism. Some consider altruism to be a specifically human, socially formed quality (Aronfreed, 1968), others - an innate, genetically fixed result of natural selection

From the book Psychology. Textbook for high school. author Teplov B. M.

4.3. Types of altruism Self-sacrifice. Particular attention should be paid to this type of altruism, such as self-sacrifice. Self-sacrifice is sacrificing oneself for the benefit of others. Let us recall the story of the old woman Izergil from the story of the same name by M. Gorky about the feat of the handsome young man Danko,

From the book The Lucifer Effect [Why good people turn into villains] author Zimbardo Philip George

Altruism scale from the Interpersonal Diagnosis Questionnaire Authors: T. Leary, R. L. Laforge, R. F. Suchek. The scale contains a number of evaluative adjectives, arranged in ascending order of intensity. For diagnosis, you need to add up the answers expressing agreement with this

From the book Psychiatry of Wars and Disasters [Tutorial] author Shamrey Vladislav Kazimirovich

Methodology for diagnosing socio-psychological attitudes of an individual in the motivational-need sphere (scales of altruism and egoism) Author: O. F. Potemkina. Purpose. Identification of the degree of expression of socio-psychological attitudes. Instructions. Answer every question

From the author's book

§62. Motives and goals The term “will” denotes that side of mental life that receives its expression in the conscious, purposeful actions of a person. A person’s actions proceed from certain motives and are aimed at certain goals. Motive is what

From the author's book

Complex motives and social motivations Human behavior is complex, and there is usually more than one motivating reason for any action. I believe that the digital images from Abu Ghraib prison were also the product of multiple motives and complex interpersonal relationships, rather than

From the author's book

9.2.4. Motives of terrorism The motives of terrorism, according to a number of researchers, are: self-affirmation, self-identification, youth romance, heroism, giving one’s activities special significance, overcoming alienation, conformism, impersonality, standardization,