Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. Turkic group

TURKIC LANGUAGES, i.e. the system of Turkic (Turkic Tatar or Turkish Tatar) languages, occupy a very vast territory in the USSR (from Yakutia to the Crimea and the Caucasus) and much smaller territory abroad (the languages ​​of the Anatolian-Balkan Turks, Gagauz and ... ... Literary encyclopedia

TURKIC LANGUAGES- a group of closely related languages. Presumably, it is part of the hypothetical Altaic macrofamily of languages. It is divided into western (Western Xiongnu) and eastern (Eastern Xiongnu) branches. The Western branch includes: Bulgar group Bulgar... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

TURKIC LANGUAGES- OR TURANIAN is the general name for the languages ​​of different nationalities of the North. Asia and Europe, the original homeland of the cat. Altai; therefore they are also called Altai. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Pavlenkov F., 1907 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Turkic languages- TURKIC LANGUAGES, see Tatar language. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of publishing house Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial Board: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

Turkic languages- a group of closely related languages. Presumably included in the hypothetical Altaic macrofamily of languages. It is divided into western (Western Xiongnu) and eastern (Eastern Xiongnu) branches. The Western branch includes: Bulgar group Bulgar (ancient ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Turkic languages- (outdated names: Turkic-Tatar, Turkish, Turkish-Tatar languages) languages ​​of numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR and Turkey, as well as some of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia and... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Turkic languages- An extensive group (family) of languages ​​spoken in the territories of Russia, Ukraine, and other countries Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Turkey, as well as Romania, Bulgaria, the former Yugoslavia, Albania. Belongs to an Altai family.… … Handbook of Etymology and Historical Lexicology

Turkic languages- Turkic languages ​​are a family of languages ​​spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages ​​to Altai... Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary

Turkic languages- (Turkic family of languages). Languages ​​that form a number of groups, which include the languages ​​Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Kara-Kalpak, Uyghur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachay,... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Turkic languages- (Turkic languages), see Altai languages... Peoples and cultures

Books

  • Languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. In 5 volumes (set), . The collective work LANGUAGES OF THE PEOPLES OF THE USSR is dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Great October Revolution socialist revolution. This work summarizes the main results of the study (in a synchronous manner)... Buy for 11,600 rubles
  • Turkic conversions and serialization. Syntax, semantics, grammaticalization, Pavel Valerievich Grashchenkov. The monograph is devoted to converbs starting with -p and their place in the grammatical system Turkic languages. The question is raised about the nature of the connection (coordinating, subordinating) between parts of complex predications with...
Turkic languages– languages ​​of the Altai macrofamily; several dozen living and dead languages ​​of Central and South-West Asia, Eastern Europe.
There are 4 groups of Turkic languages: northern, western, eastern, southern.
According to the classification of Alexander Samoilovich, Turkic languages ​​are divided into 6 groups:
p-group or Bulgarian (with Chuvash language);
d-group or Uyghur (north-eastern) inclusive of Uzbek;
Tau group or Kipchak, or Polovtsian (northwestern): Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Crimean Tatar;
Tag-lik group or Chagatai (southeastern);
Tag-li group or Kipchak-Turkmen;
ol-group or Oguz languages ​​(southwestern) Turkish (Osmanli), Azerbaijani, Turkmen, as well as the southern coastal dialects of the Crimean Tatar language.
About 157 million speakers (2005). Main languages: Turkish, Tatar, Turkmen, Uzbek, Uyghur, Chuvash language.
Writing
The most ancient monuments of writing in Turkic languages ​​– from the VI-VII centuries. Ancient Turkic runic writing - Tur. Orhun Yaz?tlar?, whale. ? ? ? ?? - a writing system used in Central Asia for recordings in Turkic languages ​​in the 8th-12th centuries. From the 13th century. – On an Arabic graphic basis: in the 20th century. The graphics of most Turkic languages ​​underwent Latinization, and subsequently Russification. The writing of the Turkish language from 1928 on a Latin basis: from the 1990s, the Latinized writing of other Turkic languages: Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Uzbek, Crimean Tatar.
Agglutinative system
Turkic languages ​​belong to the so-called agglutinative languages. Inflection in such languages ​​occurs by adding affixes to the original form of the word, clarifying or changing the meaning of the word. Turkic languages ​​do not have prefixes or endings. Let's compare Turkish: dost"Friend", dostum"my friend" (where um– indicator of ownership of the first person singular: “my”), dotumda"at my friend's place" (where da– case indicator), dostlar"friends" (where lar- index plural), dostlar?mdan "from my friends" (where lar– plural indicator, ?m– indicator of belonging to the first person singular: “my”, dan– indicator of separable case). The same system of affixes is applied to verbs, which can ultimately lead to the creation of such compound words as gorusturulmek"to be forced to communicate with each other." The inflection of nouns in almost all Turkic languages ​​has 6 cases (except Yakut), the plurality is conveyed by the suffix lar / ler. Affiliation is expressed through a system of personal affixes attached to the stem.
Synharmonism
Another feature of the Turkic languages ​​is synharmonism, which manifests itself in the fact that the affixes attached to the root have several variants of the loudness - depending on the vowel of the root. In the root itself, if it consists of more than one vowel, there may also be vowels of only one back or front rise). Thus we have (examples from Turkish): friend dost, speech dil, day gun; My friend dost um my speech dil im, my day gun um; Friends dost lar, language dil ler, days gun ler.
In the Uzbek language synharmonism is lost: friend do"st, speech til, day kun; My friend do"st im my speech til im, my day kun im; Friends do"st lar, language til lar, days kun lar.
Other Characteristics
A feature of the Turkic languages ​​is the absence of stress in words, that is, words are pronounced syllable by syllable.
The system of demonstrative pronouns is three-membered: closer, further, distant (Turkish bu - su - o). There are two types of personal endings in the conjugation system: the first - phonetically modified personal pronouns - appears in most tense forms: the second type - associated with possessive affixes - is used only in the past tense on di and in the subjunctive mood. Negation has different indicators for verb (ma/ba) and nouns (degil).
The formation of syntactic combinations - both attributive and predicative - is the same in type: the dependent word precedes the main word. A characteristic syntactic phenomenon is the Turkic izafet: kibrit kutu-su – letters“Match box it”, i.e. "matchbox" or "box of matches".
Turkic languages ​​in Ukraine
Several Turkic languages ​​are represented in Ukraine: Crimean Tatar (with the trans-Crimean diaspora - about 700 thousand), Gagauz (together with the Moldovan Gagauz - about 170 thousand people), as well as the Urum language - a variant of the Crimean Tatar language of the Azov Greeks.
According to the historical conditions of the formation of the Turkic population, the Crimean Tatar language developed as a typologically heterogeneous language: its three main dialects (steppe, middle, southern) belong, respectively, to the Kipchak-Nogai, Kipchak-Polovtsian and Oghuz types of Turkic languages.
The ancestors of modern Gagauzes moved to early XIX V. from Mon.-Shu. Bulgaria in what was then Bessarabia; Over time, their language experienced a strong influence from neighboring Romanian and Slavic languages ​​(the appearance of softened consonants, a specific back vowel of the middle rise, b, which correlates in the system of vowel harmony with the front vowels E).
The dictionary contains numerous borrowings from Greek, Italian (in Crimean Tatar), Persian, Arabic, and Slavic languages.
Borrowings to the Ukrainian language
Many borrowings from Turkic languages ​​came many centuries before the Ukrainian language: Cossack, tobacco, bag, banner, horde, herd, shepherd, sausage, gang, yasyr, whip, ataman, esaul, horse (komoni), boyar, horse, bargaining, trade, chumak (already in the dictionary of Mahmud Kashgar, 1074), pumpkin, square, kosh, koshevoy, kobza, ravine, Bakai, cone, bunchuk, ochkur, beshmet, bashlyk, watermelon, bugay, cauldron, dun, pale, damask steel, whip, cap, trump card, plague, ravine, turban, goods, comrade, balyk, lasso, yogurt: later whole designs came: I have one - probably also from the Turk. bende var (cf., however, Finnish), let's go instead of “let's go” (via Russian), etc.
Many Turkic geographical names have been preserved in the steppe Ukraine and in the Crimea: Crimea, Bakhchisarai, Sasyk, Kagarlyk, Tokmak, the historical names of Odessa - Hadzhibey, Simferopol - Akmescit, Berislav - Kizikermen, Belgorod-Dnestrovsky - Akkerman. Kyiv also had a Turkic name – Mankermen “Tinomisto”. Typical surnames of Turkic origin are Kochubey, Sheremeta, Bagalei, Krymsky.
From the language of the Cumans alone (whose state existed for more than 200 years in the Middle Dnieper region), the following words were borrowed: mace, mound, koschey (member of the koshu, servant). The names of settlements like (G) Uman, Kumancha remind us of the Cumans-Polovtsians: the numerous Pechenizhins remind us of the Pechenegs.

a family of languages ​​spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages ​​to the Altai languages ​​is at the level of a hypothesis, which involves the unification of the Turkic, Tungus-Manchu and Mongolian languages. According to a number of scientists (E. D. Polivanov, G. J. Ramstedt and others), the scope of this family is expanding to include the Korean and Japanese languages. There is also the Ural-Altaic hypothesis (M. A. Kastren, O. Bötlingk, G. Winkler, O. Donner, Z. Gombots and others), according to which T. Ya., as well as other Altai languages, together with the Finno-Ugric languages, constitute languages ​​of the Ural-Altai macrofamily. In Altaic literature, the typological similarity of the Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu languages ​​is sometimes mistaken for genetic kinship. The contradictions of the Altai hypothesis are associated, firstly, with the unclear use of the comparative historical method in the reconstruction of the Altai archetype and, secondly, with the lack of precise methods and criteria for differentiating original and borrowed roots.

The formation of individual national T. i. preceded by numerous and complex migrations of their carriers. In the 5th century the movement of Gur tribes from Asia to the Kama region began; from 5-6 centuries Turkic tribes from Central Asia (Oguz and others) began to move into Central Asia; in the 10th-12th centuries. the range of settlement of the ancient Uyghur and Oghuz tribes expanded (from Central Asia to East Turkestan, Central and Asia Minor); the consolidation of the ancestors of the Tuvinians, Khakassians, and Mountain Altaians took place; at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, Kyrgyz tribes moved from the Yenisei to the current territory of Kyrgyzstan; in the 15th century Kazakh tribes consolidated.

[Classification]

By modern geography distributions stand out T. i. the following areas: Middle and South-East Asia, Southern and Western Siberia, Volga-Kama, North Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Black Sea region. There are several classification schemes in Turkology.

V. A. Bogoroditsky shared T. I. into 7 groups: northeastern(Yakut, Karagas and Tuvan languages); Khakass (Abakan), which included the Sagai, Beltir, Koibal, Kachin and Kyzyl dialects of the Khakass population of the region; Altai with a southern branch (Altai and Teleut languages) and a northern branch (dialects of the so-called Chernev Tatars and some others); West Siberian, which includes all dialects of the Siberian Tatars; Volga-Ural region(Tatar and Bashkir languages); Central Asian(Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Karakalpak languages); southwestern(Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Kumyk, Gagauz and Turkish languages).

The linguistic criteria of this classification were not sufficiently complete and convincing, as well as the purely phonetic features that formed the basis for the classification of V.V. Radlov, who distinguished 4 groups: eastern(languages ​​and dialects of the Altai, Ob, Yenisei Turks and Chulym Tatars, Karagas, Khakass, Shor and Tuvan languages); western(adverbs of the Tatars of Western Siberia, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Bashkir, Tatar and, conditionally, Karakalpak languages); Central Asian(Uyghur and Uzbek languages) and southern(Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Turkish languages, some southern coastal dialects of the Crimean Tatar language); Radlov especially singled out the Yakut language.

F.E. Korsh, who was the first to use morphological characteristics as the basis for classification, admitted that T. i. originally divided into northern and southern groups; later the southern group split into eastern and western.

In the refined scheme proposed by A. N. Samoilovich (1922), T. i. divided into 6 groups: p-group, or Bulgarian (the Chuvash language was also included in it); d-group, or Uyghur, otherwise northeastern (in addition to Old Uyghur, it included Tuvan, Tofalar, Yakut, Khakass languages); Tau group, or Kypchak, otherwise northwestern (Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Kyrgyz languages, Altai language and its dialects, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Crimean Tatar languages); tag-lyk-group, or Chagatai, otherwise south-eastern (modern Uyghur language, Uzbek language without its Kipchak dialects); tag-ly group, or Kipchak-Turkmen (intermediate dialects - Khiva-Uzbek and Khiva-Sart, which have lost their independent meaning); Ol‑group, otherwise southwestern, or Oghuz (Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, southern coastal Crimean Tatar dialects).

Subsequently, new schemes were proposed, each of which attempted to clarify the distribution of languages ​​into groups, as well as to include ancient Turkic languages. For example, Ramstedt identifies 6 main groups: Chuvash language; Yakut language; northern group (according to A.M.O. Ryasyanen - northeastern), to which all T. I are assigned. and dialects of Altai and surrounding areas; western group (according to Räsänen - northwestern) - Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai, Kumyk, Karachay, Balkar, Karaite, Tatar and Bashkir languages, the dead Cuman and Kipchak languages ​​are also included in this group; eastern group (according to Räsänen - southeastern) - New Uyghur and Uzbek languages; southern group (according to Räsänen - southwestern) - Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Turkish and Gagauz languages. Some variations of this type of scheme are represented by the classification proposed by I. Benzing and K. G. Menges. The classification of S. E. Malov is based on a chronological feature: all languages ​​are divided into “old”, “new” and “newest”.

The classification of N. A. Baskakov is fundamentally different from the previous ones; according to his principles, the classification of T. i. is nothing more than a periodization of the history of development Turkic peoples and languages ​​in all the diversity of small tribal associations of the primitive system that arose and collapsed, and then large tribal associations, which, having the same origin, created communities that were different in the composition of the tribes, and, consequently, in the composition of the tribal languages.

The considered classifications, with all their shortcomings, helped to identify groups of T. i., genetically related most closely. The special allocation of the Chuvash and Yakut languages ​​is justified. To develop a more accurate classification, it is necessary to expand the set of differential features, taking into account the extremely complex dialect division of T. i. The most generally accepted classification scheme when describing individual T. i. The scheme proposed by Samoilovich remains.

[Typology]

Typologically T. I. belong to agglutinative languages. The root (base) of the word, without being burdened with class indicators (there is no class division of nouns in T. Ya.), in the nominative case can appear in its pure form, due to which it becomes the organizing center of the entire declension paradigm. The axial structure of the paradigm, i.e. one that is based on one structural core, influenced the nature of phonetic processes (tendency to maintain clear boundaries between morphemes, an obstacle to deformation of the paradigm axis itself, to deformation of the base of the word, etc.) . A companion to agglutination in T. i. is synharmonism.

[Phonetics]

It manifests itself more consistently in T. I. harmony on the basis of palatality - non-palatality, cf. tour. evler-in-de ‘in their houses’, Karachay-Balk. bar-ai-ym ‘I’ll go’, etc. Labial synharmonism in different T. i. developed to varying degrees.

There is a hypothesis about the presence of 8 vowel phonemes for the early common Turkic state, which could be short and long: a, ә, o, u, ө, ү, ы, и. The question is whether there was I in T. closed /e/. A characteristic feature of further changes in ancient Turkic vocalism is the loss of long vowels, which affected the majority of T. i. They are mainly preserved in the Yakut, Turkmen, Khalaj languages; in other T. I. Only their individual relics have survived.

In the Tatar, Bashkir and ancient Chuvash languages, there was a transition from /a/ in the first syllables of many words to labialized, pushed back /a°/, cf. *kara ‘black’, ancient Turkic, Kazakh. kara, but tat. ka°ra; *at ‘horse’, ancient Turkic, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh. at, but tat., bashk. a°t, etc. There was also a transition from /a/ to labialized /o/, typical for the Uzbek language, cf. *bash ‘head’, Uzbek. Bosch There is an umlaut /a/ under the influence of /i/ of the next syllable in the Uyghur language (eti ‘his horse’ instead of ata); the short ә is preserved in the Azerbaijani and New Uyghur languages ​​(cf. kәl‑ ‘come’, Azerbaijani gәl′‑, Uyghur. kәl‑), while ә > e in most T. i. (cf. Tur. gel‑, Nogai, Alt., Kirg. kel‑, etc.). The Tatar, Bashkir, Khakass and partly Chuvash languages ​​are characterized by the transition ә > and, cf. *әт ‘meat’, Tat. it. In the Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai and Karachay-Balkar languages, diphthongoid pronunciation of some vowels at the beginning of a word is noted, in the Tuvan and Tofalar languages ​​- the presence of pharyngealized vowels.

The most common form of the present tense is -a, which sometimes also has the meaning of the future tense (in the Tatar, Bashkir, Kumyk, Crimean Tatar languages, in the T. Ya. of Central Asia, dialects of the Tatars of Siberia). In all T. I. there is a present-future form in ‑ar/‑yr. The Turkish language is characterized by the present tense form in ‑yor, the Turkmen language - in ‑yar. Present form at this moment in ‑makta/‑makhta/‑mokda is found in Turkish, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Crimean Tatar, Turkmen, Uyghur, Karakalpak languages. In T. I. there is a tendency to create special forms present tense of a given moment, formed according to the model “gerund participle in a- or -yp + present tense form of a certain group of auxiliary verbs.”

The common Turkic form of the past tense on -dy is distinguished by its semantic capacity and aspectual neutrality. In the development of T. i. There has been a constant tendency to create the past tense with aspectual meanings, especially those denoting duration. action in the past (cf. indefinite imperfect type of Karaite alyr eat ‘I took’). In many T. I. (mainly Kypchak) there is a perfect formed by attaching personal endings of the first type (phonetically modified personal pronouns) to the participle in ‑kan/‑gan. An etymologically related form in ‑an exists in the Turkmen language and in ‑ny in the Chuvash language. In the languages ​​of the Oguz group, the perfect for -mouse is common, and in the Yakut language there is an etymologically related form for -byt. The plusquaperfect has the same stem as the perfect, combined with the past tense stem forms of the auxiliary verb 'to be'.

In all T. languages, except for the Chuvash language, for the future tense (present-future) there is an indicator ‑yr/‑ar. The Oghuz languages ​​are characterized by the form of the future categorical tense in ‑adzhak/‑achak; it is also common in some languages ​​of the southern area (Uzbek, Uyghur).

In addition to the indicative in T. i. There is a desirable mood with the most common indicators - gai (for Kipchak languages), -a (for Oguz languages), imperative with its own paradigm, where the pure stem of the verb expresses a command addressed to the 2nd letter. units h., conditional, having 3 models of education with special indicators: -sa (for most languages), -sar (in Orkhon, ancient Uyghur monuments, as well as in Turkic texts of the 10-13th centuries from East Turkestan, from modern languages ​​in phonetically transformed form preserved only in Yakut), -san (in the Chuvash language); The obligatory mood is found mainly in the languages ​​of the Oghuz group (cf. Azerbaijani ҝәлмәлјәм ‘I must come’).

T. I. have a real (coinciding with the stem), passive (indicator ‑l, attached to the stem), reflexive (indicator ‑n), reciprocal (indicator ‑ш) and forced (indicators are varied, the most common are ‑holes/‑tyr, ‑t, ‑ yz, -gyz) pledges.

Verb stem in T. i. indifferent to the expression of aspect. Aspectual shades can have separate tense forms, as well as special complex verbs, the aspectual characteristics of which are given by auxiliary verbs.

  • Melioransky P. M., Arab philologist on the Turkish language, St. Petersburg, 1900;
  • Bogoroditsky V. A., Introduction to Tatar linguistics, Kazan, 1934; 2nd ed., Kazan, 1953;
  • Malov S. E., Monuments of ancient Turkic writing, M.-L., 1951;
  • Research on comparative grammar Turkic languages, parts 1-4, M., 1955-62;
  • Baskakov N. A., Introduction to the study of Turkic languages, M., 1962; 2nd ed., M., 1969;
  • his, Historical-typological phonology of Turkic languages, M., 1988;
  • Shcherbak A. M., Comparative phonetics of Turkic languages, Leningrad, 1970;
  • Sevortyan E.V., Etymological Dictionary of Turkic Languages, [vol. 1-3], M., 1974-80;
  • Serebrennikov B.A., Gadzhieva N.Z., Comparative-historical grammar of Turkic languages, Baku, 1979; 2nd ed., M., 1986;
  • Comparative-historical grammar of the Turkic languages. Phonetics. Rep. ed. E. R. Tenishev, M., 1984;
  • Same, Morphology, M., 1988;
  • Grønbech K., Der Türkische Sprachbau, v. 1, Kph., 1936;
  • Gabain A., Alttürkische Grammatik, Lpz., 1941; 2. Aufl., Lpz., 1950;
  • Brockelmann C., Osttürkische Grammatik der islamischen Literatursprachen Mittelasiens, Leiden, 1954;
  • Räsänen M. R., Materialien zur Morphologie der türkischen Sprachen, Hels., 1957 (Studia Orientalia, XXI);
  • Philologiae Turcicae fundamenta, t. 1-2, , 1959-64.

TURKIC LANGUAGES, a language family distributed from Turkey in the west to Xinjiang in the east and from the coast of the East Siberian Sea in the north to Khorasan in the south. Speakers of these languages ​​live compactly in the CIS countries (Azerbaijanis - in Azerbaijan, Turkmen - in Turkmenistan, Kazakhs - in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz - in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks - in Uzbekistan; Kumyks, Karachais, Balkars, Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Yakuts, Tuvinians, Khakassians, Altai Mountains - in Russia; Gagauzians - in the Transnistrian Republic) and beyond - in Turkey (Turks) and China (Uyghurs). Currently, the total number of speakers of Turkic languages ​​is about 120 million. The Turkic family of languages ​​is part of the Altai macrofamily.

The very first (3rd century BC, according to glottochronology) the Bulgar group separated from the Proto-Turkic community (according to other terminology - R-languages). The only living representative of this group is the Chuvash language. Individual glosses are known in written monuments and borrowings in neighboring languages ​​from the medieval languages ​​of the Volga and Danube Bulgars. The remaining Turkic languages ​​(“common Turkic” or “Z-languages”) are usually classified into 4 groups: “southwestern” or “Oghuz” languages ​​(main representatives: Turkish, Gagauz, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Afshar, coastal Crimean Tatar) , “northwestern” or “Kypchak” languages ​​(Karaite, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz), “southeastern” or “Karluk” languages ​​(Uzbek, Uyghur), "north-eastern" languages ​​- a genetically heterogeneous group, including: a) the Yakut subgroup (Yakut and Dolgan languages), which separated from the common Turkic, according to glottochronological data, before its final collapse, in the 3rd century. AD; b) Sayan group (Tuvan and Tofalar languages); c) Khakass group (Khakass, Shor, Chulym, Saryg-Yugur); d) Gorno-Altai group (Oirot, Teleut, Tuba, Lebedin, Kumandin). The southern dialects of the Gorno-Altai group are close in a number of parameters to the Kyrgyz language, together with it constituting the “Central-Eastern group” of Turkic languages; some dialects of the Uzbek language clearly belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kipchak group; Khorezm dialects of the Uzbek language belong to the Oghuz group; Some of the Siberian dialects of the Tatar language are moving closer to the Chulym-Turkic.

The earliest deciphered written monuments of the Turks date back to the 7th century. AD (steles written in runic script, found on the Orkhon River in northern Mongolia). Throughout their history, the Turks used the Turkic runic (apparently dating back to the Sogdian script), Uyghur script (later passed from them to the Mongols), Brahmi, Manichaean script, and Arabic script. Currently, writing systems based on the Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic alphabet are common.

According to historical sources, information about the Turkic peoples first surfaces in connection with the appearance of the Huns in the historical arena. The steppe empire of the Huns, like all known formations of this kind, was not monoethnic; judging by the linguistic material that has reached us, there was a Turkic element in it. Moreover, the dating of the initial information about the Huns (in Chinese historical sources) is 4–3 centuries. BC. – coincides with the glottochronological determination of the time of separation of the Bulgar group. Therefore, a number of scientists directly connect the beginning of the movement of the Huns with the separation and departure of the Bulgars to the west. The ancestral home of the Turks is placed in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, between the Altai and northern part Khingan Range. From the south-eastern side they were in contact with the Mongol tribes, from the west their neighbors were the Indo-European peoples of the Tarim basin, from the north-west - the Ural and Yenisei peoples, from the north - the Tungus-Manchus.

By the 1st century. BC. separate tribal groups of the Huns moved to the territory of modern Southern Kazakhstan in the 4th century. AD The Huns' invasion of Europe begins towards the end of the 5th century. in Byzantine sources the ethnonym “Bulgars” appears, denoting a confederation of tribes of Hunnic origin that occupied the steppe between the Volga and Danube basins. Subsequently, the Bulgar confederation is divided into the Volga-Bulgar and Danube-Bulgar parts.

After the breakaway of the “Bulgars,” the remaining Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century. AD, when, after the victory over the Ruan-Rhuan confederation (part of the Xianbi, presumably the proto-Mongols, who defeated and ousted the Huns at one time), they formed the Turkic confederation, which dominated from the mid-6th to the mid-7th century. over a vast territory from the Amur to the Irtysh. Historical sources do not provide information about the moment of the split from the Turkic community of the ancestors of the Yakuts. The only possibility to connect the ancestors of the Yakuts with some historical messages is to identify them with the Kurykans of the Orkhon inscriptions, who belonged to the Teles confederation, absorbed by the Turkuts. They were localized at this time, apparently, to the east of Lake Baikal. Judging by the mentions in the Yakut epic, the main advance of the Yakuts to the north is associated with a much later time - the expansion of the empire of Genghis Khan.

In 583, the Turkic confederation was divided into western (with a center in Talas) and eastern Turkuts (otherwise known as “blue Turks”), the center of which remained the former center of the Turkic empire Kara-Balgasun on the Orkhon. Apparently, the collapse of the Turkic languages ​​into the western (Oghuz, Kipchaks) and eastern (Siberia; Kyrgyz; Karluks) macrogroups is associated with this event. In 745, the eastern Turkuts were defeated by the Uyghurs (localized southwest of Lake Baikal and presumably at first non-Turkic, but by that time already Turkified). Both the Eastern Turkic and Uyghur states experienced strong cultural influence from China, but they were no less influenced by the Eastern Iranians, primarily Sogdian merchants and missionaries; in 762 Manichaeism became state religion Uyghur Empire.

In 840, the Uyghur state centered on the Orkhon was destroyed by the Kyrgyz (from the upper reaches of the Yenisei; presumably also initially non-Turkic, but by this time a Turkic people), the Uyghurs fled to East Turkestan, where in 847 they founded a state with the capital Kocho (in the Turfan oasis). From here the main monuments of the ancient Uighur language and culture have reached us. Another group of fugitives settled in what is now the Chinese province of Gansu; their descendants may be the Saryg-Yugurs. The entire northeastern group of Turks, except the Yakuts, can also go back to the Uyghur conglomerate - as part of the Turkic population of the former Uyghur Kaganate, which moved north, deeper into the taiga, already during the Mongol expansion.

In 924, the Kyrgyz were forced out of the Orkhon state by the Khitans (presumably Mongols by language) and partially returned to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, partially moved west, to the southern spurs of Altai. Apparently, the formation of the Central-Eastern group of Turkic languages ​​can be traced back to this South Altai migration.

The Turfan state of the Uyghurs existed for a long time next to another Turkic state, which was dominated by the Karluks - a Turkic tribe that originally lived to the east of the Uyghurs, but by 766 moved west and subjugated the state of the Western Turkuts, whose tribal groups spread to the steppes of Turan (Ili-Talas region , Sogdiana, Khorasan and Khorezm; while Iranians lived in the cities). At the end of the 8th century. Karluk Khan Yabgu converted to Islam. The Karluks gradually assimilated the Uyghurs living to the east, and the Uyghur literary language served as the basis for the literary language of the Karluk (Karakhanid) state.

Part of the tribes of the Western Turkic Kaganate were Oghuz. Of these, the Seljuk confederation stood out, which at the turn of the 1st millennium AD. migrated west through Khorasan to Asia Minor. Apparently, the linguistic consequence of this movement was the formation of the southwestern group of Turkic languages. Around the same time (and, apparently, in connection with these events) there was a mass migration to the Volga-Ural steppes and Eastern Europe of tribes that represented the ethnic basis of the current Kipchak languages.

The phonological systems of the Turkic languages ​​are characterized by a number of general properties. In the field of consonantism, restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, and restrictions on the compatibility of phonemes are common. At the beginning of the original Turkic words do not occur l,r,n, š ,z. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength/weakness (Eastern Siberia) or by dullness/voice. At the beginning of a word, the opposition of consonants in terms of deafness/voicedness (strength/weakness) is found only in the Oguz and Sayan groups; in most other languages, at the beginning of words, labials are voiced, dental and back-lingual ones are voiceless. Uvulars in most Turkic languages ​​are allophones of velars with back vowels. The following types of historical changes in the consonant system are classified as significant. a) In the Bulgarian group, in most positions there is a voiceless fricative lateral l coincided with l in sound in l; r And r V r. In other Turkic languages l gave š , r gave z, l And r preserved. In relation to this process, all Turkologists are divided into two camps: some call it rotacism-lambdaism, others – zetacism-sigmatism, and their non-recognition or recognition of the Altai kinship of languages ​​is statistically connected with this, respectively. b) Intervocalic d(pronounced as an interdental fricative ð) gives r in Chuvash t in Yakut, d in the Sayan languages ​​and Khalaj (an isolated Turkic language in Iran), z in the Khakass group and j in other languages; accordingly, they talk about r-,t-,d-,z- And j- languages.

The vocalism of most Turkic languages ​​is characterized by synharmonism (similarity of vowels within one word) in row and roundness; The synharmonic system is also being reconstructed for Proto-Turkic. Synharmonism disappeared in the Karluk group (as a result of which the opposition of velars and uvulars was phonologized there). In the New Uyghur language, a certain semblance of synharmonism is again being built - the so-called “Uyghur umlaut”, the preemption of wide unrounded vowels before the next i(which goes back to both the front *i, and to the rear * ï ). In Chuvash, the entire vowel system has changed greatly, and the old synharmonicism has disappeared (its trace is the opposition k from velar in anterior word and x from the uvular in a back-row word), but then a new synharmonism was built along the row, taking into account the current phonetic characteristics of vowels. The long/short opposition of vowels that existed in Proto-Turkic was preserved in the Yakut and Turkmen languages ​​(and in residual form in other Oguz languages, where voiceless consonants were voiced after the old long vowels, as well as in Sayan, where short vowels before voiceless consonants receive the sign of “pharyngealization”) ; in other Turkic languages ​​it disappeared, but in many languages ​​long vowels reappeared after the loss of intervocalic voiced ones (Tuvinsk. sō"tub"< *sagu and under.). In Yakut, the primary wide long vowels turned into rising diphthongs.

In all modern Turkic languages ​​there is a force stress, which is morphonologically fixed. In addition, for Siberian languages, tonal and phonation contrasts were noted, although not fully described.

From the point of view of morphological typology, Turkic languages ​​belong to the agglutinative, suffixal type. Moreover, if the Western Turkic languages ​​are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then the eastern ones, like the Mongolian languages, develop a powerful fusion.

Grammatical categories of names in Turkic languages ​​– number, belonging, case. The order of affixes is: stem + aff. numbers + aff. accessories + case aff. Plural form h. is usually formed by adding an affix to the stem -lar(in Chuvash -sem). In all Turkic languages ​​the plural form is h. is marked, unit form. h. - unmarked. In particular, in the generic meaning and with numerals the singular form is used. numbers (Kumyk. men at gördüm " I (actually) saw horses."

Case systems include: a) nominative (or main) case with a zero indicator; the form with a zero case indicator is used not only as a subject and a nominal predicate, but also as an indefinite direct object, an applicative definition and with many postpositions; b) accusative case (aff. *- (ï )g) – case of definite direct object; V) Genitive(aff.) – case of a concrete-referential adjective definition; d) dative-directive (aff. *-a/*-ka); e) local (aff. *-ta); e) ablative (aff. *-tïn). The Yakut language rebuilt its case system according to the model of the Tungus-Manchu languages. Usually there are two types of declension: nominal and possessive-nominal (declension of words with aff. affiliation of the 3rd person; case affixes take a slightly different form in this case).

An adjective in Turkic languages ​​differs from a noun in the absence of inflectional categories. Having received the syntactic function of a subject or object, the adjective also acquires all the inflectional categories of the noun.

Pronouns change by case. Personal pronouns are available for 1st and 2nd persons (* bi/ben"I", * si/sen"You", * Bir"We", *sir"you"), in the third person are used demonstrative pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns in most languages ​​have three degrees of range, e.g. bu"this", šu"this remote" (or "this" when indicated by hand), ol"That". Interrogative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate ( kim"who" and ne"What").

In a verb, the order of affixes is as follows: verb stem (+ aff. voice) (+ aff. negation (- ma-)) + aff. mood/aspect-temporal + aff. conjugations for persons and numbers (in brackets are affixes that are not necessarily present in the word form).

Voices of the Turkic verb: active (without indicators), passive (*- ïl), return ( *-ïn-), mutual ( * -ïš- ) and causative ( *-t-,*-ïr-,*-tïr- and some etc.). These indicators can be combined with each other (cum. gur-yush-"see", ger-yush-dir-"to make you see each other" yaz-holes-"make you write" tongue-hole-yl-"to be forced to write").

The conjugated forms of the verb are divided into proper verbal and non-verbal. The first ones have personal indicators that go back to the affixes of belonging (except for 1 l. plural and 3 l. plural). These include the past categorical tense (aorist) in the indicative mood: verb stem + indicator - d- + personal indicators: bar-d-ïm"I went" oqu-d-u-lar"they read"; means a completed action, the fact of which is beyond doubt. This also includes the conditional mood (verb stem + -sa-+ personal indicators); desired mood (verb stem + -aj- + personal indicators: Proto-Turkic. * bar-aj-ïm"let me go" * bar-aj-ïk"let's go"); imperative mood (pure base of the verb in 2 liters units and base + in 2 l. pl. h.).

Non-verbal forms are historically gerunds and participles in the function of a predicate, formalized by the same indicators of predicability as nominal predicates, namely postpositive personal pronouns. For example: ancient Turkic. ( ben)beg ben"I am bek" ben anca tir ben"I say so", lit. “I say so-I.” There are different gerunds of the present tense (or simultaneity) (stem + -a), uncertain-future (base + -Vr, Where V– vowel of varying quality), precedence (stem + -ip), desired mood (stem + -g aj); perfect participle (stem + -g an), postocular, or descriptive (stem + -mïš), definite-future tense (base +) and many more. etc. The affixes of gerunds and participles do not carry voice oppositions. Participles with predicate affixes, as well as participles with auxiliary verbs in proper and improper verbal forms (numerous existential, phase, modal verbs, verbs of motion, verbs “take” and “give”) express a variety of accomplished, modal, directional and accommodative meanings, cf. Kumyk bara bolgayman"looks like I'm going" ( go- deepr. simultaneity become- deepr. desirable -I), Ishley Goremen"I am going to work" ( work- deepr. simultaneity look- deepr. simultaneity -I), language"write it down (for yourself)" ( write- deepr. precedence take it). Various verbal names of action are used as infinitives in various Turkic languages.

From the point of view of syntactic typology, Turkic languages ​​belong to the languages ​​of the nominative structure with the predominant word order “subject - object - predicate”, preposition of definition, preference for postpositions over prepositions. There is an isafet design – with the membership indicator for the word being defined ( at baš-ï"horse head", lit. "horse head-her") In a coordinating phrase, usually all grammatical indicators are attached to the last word.

The general rules for the formation of subordinating phrases (including sentences) are cyclical: any subordinating combination can be inserted as one of the members into any other, and the connection indicators are attached to the main member of the built-in combination (the verb form in this case turns into the corresponding participle or gerund). Wed: Kumyk. ak saqal"white beard" ak sakal-ly gishi"white bearded man" booth-la-ny ara-son-yes"between the booths" booth-la-ny ara-son-da-gyy el-well orta-son-da"in the middle of the path passing between the booths" sen ok atgyang"you shot an arrow" Sep ok atgyanyng-ny gördyum“I saw you shoot the arrow” (“you shot the arrow – 2 liters singular – vin. case – I saw”). When a predicative combination is inserted in this way, they often speak of the “Altai type of complex sentence”; indeed, Turkic and other Altaic languages ​​show a clear preference for such absolute constructions with the verb in the non-finite form over subordinate clauses. The latter, however, are also used; used for communication in complex sentences allied words– interrogative pronouns (in subordinate clauses) and correlative words – demonstrative pronouns (in main clauses).

The main part of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​is native, often having parallels in other Altai languages. A comparison of the general vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​allows us to get an idea of ​​the world in which the Turks lived during the collapse of the Proto-Turkic community: the landscape, fauna and flora of the southern taiga in Eastern Siberia, on the border with the steppe; metallurgy of the early Iron Age; economic structure of the same period; transhumance cattle breeding based on horse breeding (using horse meat for food) and sheep breeding; agriculture in an auxiliary function; the great role of developed hunting; two types of housing - winter stationary and summer portable; fairly developed social division on a tribal basis; appears to be a somewhat codified system legal relations during active trading; a set of religious and mythological concepts characteristic of shamanism. In addition, of course, such “basic” vocabulary as names of body parts, verbs of movement, sensory perception, etc. is restored.

In addition to the original Turkic vocabulary, modern Turkic languages ​​use a large number of borrowings from languages ​​with whose speakers the Turks have ever been in contact. These are primarily Mongolian borrowings (in the Mongolian languages ​​there are many borrowings from the Turkic languages; there are also cases when a word was borrowed first from the Turkic languages ​​into the Mongolian ones, and then back, from the Mongolian languages ​​into the Turkic languages, cf. ancient Uyghur. irbii, Tuvinsk irbiš"leopard" > Mong. irbis > Kyrgyzstan irbis). In the Yakut language there are many Tungus-Manchu borrowings, in Chuvash and Tatar they are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages ​​of the Volga region (as well as vice versa). A significant part of the “cultural” vocabulary has been borrowed: in ancient Uyghur there are many borrowings from Sanskrit and Tibetan, primarily from Buddhist terminology; in the languages ​​of Muslim Turkic peoples there are many Arabisms and Persianisms; in the languages ​​of the Turkic peoples that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, there are many Russian borrowings, including internationalisms like communism,tractor,political economy. On the other hand, there are many Turkic borrowings in the Russian language. The earliest are borrowings from the Danube-Bulgarian language into Old Church Slavonic ( book, drip"idol" - in the word temple“pagan temple” and so on), from there they came to Russian; there are also borrowings from Bulgarian into Old Russian (as well as into other Slavic languages): serum(common Turkic) *jogurt, bulg. *suvart), bursa“Persian silk fabric” (Chuvash. porzin< *bariun< Middle-Persian *aparešum; trade between pre-Mongol Rus' and Persia went along the Volga through the Great Bulgar). A large number of cultural vocabulary was borrowed into the Russian language from late medieval Turkic languages ​​in the 14th–17th centuries. (during the time of the Golden Horde and even more later, during times of brisk trade with the surrounding Turkic states: ass, pencil, raisin,shoe, iron,Altyn,arshin,coachman,Armenian,ditch,dried apricots and many more etc.). In more late times The Russian language borrowed from Turkic only words denoting local Turkic realities ( snow leopard,ayran,kobyz,sultanas,village,elm). Contrary to popular belief, there are no Turkic borrowings among Russian obscene (obscene) vocabulary; almost all of these words are Slavic in origin.

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  • Turks or Mongols? The era of Genghis Khan. , Olovintsov Anatoly Grigorievich. How small people conquered multi-million China, all of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region, the principalities of Rus' and another half of Europe? Who are they - Turks or Mongols? ...It's difficult...
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