My first friend, my friend priceless! And I blessed fate, When my yard secluded, Sad snow listed, Your bell rang (A.S. Pushkin). Written December 13, 1826
Let's pay attention to the phonetics of participles. This is poetry, high style, the pronunciation of Yo is not welcome here.
From the history of the letter E. The letter E was created to designate a soft version of the stressed sound O, which appeared as a result of the final consolidation in the language of a special phonetic alternation of vowel sounds, for example: village - villages, ice - ice(they used to say icy – ice).
Having arisen in colloquial speech, new pronunciation in the second half of the 18th century began to actively penetrate literary language. In genres of high style, for example in tragedy, it for a long time was considered unacceptable, reading E is preserved longer than others and in philosophical lyrics. But gradually the variability disappears, the soft percussive sound O finally is fixed in language.
When did the names of the species appear? This is Vostokov A.Kh. "Russian Grammar" 1831. It is unlikely that the “common” Yo could have sounded in linguistic science at that time. Therefore, we can conclude: the perfect form is this is the tradition of pronouncing the participle "perfect" with the meaning "finished"
It may also be noted that there is no particular opposition between the participle “perfect” and the adjective “perfect”, expressing highest degree any positive quality: the perfection of creation presupposes its completeness too.
REFERENCE MATERIAL
1) Discussion of the names of types of verbs is not new, for example, here is material on the same topic Complete (e?) Aspect of the verb
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Linguistics has only just begun to understand the classification of verbs. The drafts show how long and gradually M.V. Lomonosov installed number and names of species. But his work was not in vain: it was his classification that exposed the problem and made obvious the existence of an additional category, which researchers began to isolate from the very beginning of the 19th century.
In literary pronunciation of the 17th-18th centuries. Church Slavonic traditions were strong, where the sound е was replaced by e. Therefore, I have a strong suspicion that words like “perfect”, “solitary” were pronounced as “perfect”, “solitary” (by analogy with "life", "yours"). Accordingly it was written: "perfect". If that's the case then historically correct "perfect", but in meaning – "perfect".
2) More about the history of studying verb types:
The category of species, which replaced the rich system of Russian times, was not clearly distinguished from the category of time in the works of a number of scientists (N.I. Grech, A.Kh. Vostokov, etc.). OH. Vostokov in “Russian Grammar” identified three types: incomplete (imperfect), perfect and multiple. In addition to three types, he identified eight forms of time. He failed to distinguish between the categories of type and time.
View – this is a morphological category of a verb, which indicates the relationship of the action denoted by the verb to the internal limit of this action: decide – decide.
All verbs in any form have value of the form, therefore, this category is universal. The category of aspect is binary: it consists of verbs of two types: perfect (answer the question what to do?) and imperfect (answer the question what to do?).
View– this is a specific category of Russian and other Slavic languages, one of the complex categories of grammar, which is studied by a special section of grammar – aspectology. The private meanings of both types of verbs are varied: the meaning of completeness (to say), the meaning of a one-time action (to shout), the meaning of an indefinite duration of action (to shout), etc.
All these particular meanings can be reduced to more general ones: action without indicating its internal limit (verbs are not perfect form) and action indicating its internal limit (perfect verbs).
Perfective and imperfective verbs differ not only in categorical meaning, but also in inflection and grammatical compatibility. Imperfect verbs in the indicative mood they have the ability to form all tense forms (do – did – I do – I'll do it), they have a full set of tense forms of participles. For perfective verbs there is no present tense form in the indicative mood (do – did – I'll do it) and present participles. Perfect Verbs never combined with verbs denoting any phase of action (start, finish, continue, etc.), and with words and phrases like for a long time, for hours, daily, etc.
The majority of verbs in the Russian language are opposed to each other in appearance: they form species pairs. Two verbs that are identical in their lexical meaning, but differ in the grammatical meaning of the perfective and imperfective form, are combined species pair: write – write, do – do.
The most common method of speciation is suffixal.
Imperfective verbs are formed from perfective verbs using suffixes: -willow-, -yva-(glue – glue, ask – question), -va-, -a-(-i) (give – give, sing – sing, decide – decide, save – save).
Perfective verbs are formed from imperfective verbs using the suffixes -nu- and -anu-: (push – push, prick – prick, sprinkle – sprinkle), prefixes for-, on-, from-, s-, pro-, o-, you-, on-, once-, etc.(take notes – take notes, write – write, bake – bake, make – do, read – read, weaken – weaken, heal – cure, build – build, etc.).
But most often, prefixes not only change the grammatical meaning of the aspect, but also give the verb a new lexical meaning; such verbs do not form an aspectual pair: read – reread, reprimand, read out, etc.
The verbs that make up the aspectual pair can differ only in the place of stress:cut – cut, pour – pour.
In some cases, members of a species pair can be expressed by verbs with different stems: take – take, look for – find, talk – say.
Not all verbs in the Russian language can form aspectual pairs. The differences between the verbs that make up the aspectual pair should be reduced only to the difference in indicating the internal limit
Verbs that have only perfective or imperfective meanings are called single-species. Most often these are verbs with a pronounced method of verbal action: to be, to exist, to appear (imperfect form), to say, to shout, to wake up, to sleep (perfect form)
Bi-aspect verbs They express perfective and imperfective meanings through the same form. These verbs take special place in the aspectual system of the Russian language. Please note that it is important not to confuse two-aspect verbs with verbs that have aspect pairs.
Two-aspect verbs include: verbs with suffixes -ova(t), -irova(t): address, organize, confiscate, etc.; some verbs with suffixes -a(t), -e(t), -i(t): run, promise, crown, promise, grant, wound, etc.
Most often, the duality of verbs manifests itself in the forms of the past tense and infinitive, but sometimes the forms of the present and future tense are not distinguished (execution, wife). The meaning of one or another type is revealed in the context. For example: The guns are firing from the pier, they are ordering the ship to land (what are they doing?) (A. Pushkin); Would you like me to order (what will I do?) bring the rug? (N. Gogol).
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37. Types of verb. Modern theory of species meaning. The mechanism of speciation in RY. Species chains. Formation of correlative species pairs. Two-type verbs.
The category of species, which replaced the rich system of Russian times, was not clearly distinguished from the category of time in the works of a number of scientists (N.I. Grech, A.Kh. Vostokov, etc.). OH. Vostokov in “Russian Grammar” identified three types: incomplete (imperfect), perfect and multiple. In addition to three types, he identified eight forms of time. He failed to distinguish between the categories of type and time.
G. Pavsky in “Philological Observations” puts forward a theory of three degrees of duration, which was later supported by K.S. Aksakov and N.P. Nekrasov. “In verbs, degrees indicate the measure of duration and scope of action,” wrote G. Pavsky. What was valuable in this theory was the interpretation of the category of type as a category expressing a qualitative difference in the nature of the action.
A.A. Potebnya, having adopted the theory of degrees of duration (he distinguishes four degrees of duration), goes further than his predecessors. Potebnya connects the degrees of duration with the perfection and imperfection of an action, but does not identify them.
In the works of G.K. Ulyanova, F.F. Fortunatova, A.A. Shakhmatova, A.M. Peshkovsky, V.V. Vinogradov and other scientists supported the theory of two types - perfect and imperfect. Much attention was paid to the study of the species formation system and the determination of the grammatical and semantic side of the species category. The category of type began to be understood as a category that expresses not a quantitative, but a qualitative characteristic of an action. However, there is still no consensus on the issue of defining the category of species and the difference between perfect and imperfect species.
Some scientists considered the type as a category that denotes the distribution of action in time (A.Kh. Vostokov, F.I. Buslaev, A.A. Potebnya, A.M. Peshkovsky), others emphasized in the definition of the type the way the action occurs (A. Boldyrev, A. .A. Shakhmatov, V.A. Bogoroditsky), others considered the view as a category expressing an action in relation to its limit, result (V.V. Vinogradov and many modern researchers).
The concept of a species. Type is a civil code indicating limited/unlimited action. The limit is the point after which the action does not develop (Maslov, Vinogradov). The category of aspect is inherent in all forms of the verb. Verbs decided And decided denote the same action, but differ grammatically. Verb decided perfect form, it denotes an action that has completed the achievement of a result and is complete. This verb grammatically expresses an indication of the limit, the boundary of the action, therefore the action decided is conceived as limited in its course. Verb decided imperfect form, it does not contain an indication of the internal limit, the boundary of action, or its completeness. Consequently, the category of aspect expresses the relation of the action denoted by the verb to the internal limit of the action. Imperfect species denotes an action in its course, without indicating the limit, boundary of action ( moaned, grew old and so on.). Perfect view denotes an action limited by a limit at any moment of its implementation: made some noise(started making noise) made some noise(made noise for a while); made noise(completeness of action).
Among imperfective and perfective verbs, verbs are widely represented as their subtypes multiple(imperfect form) and one-time(perfect form). Multiple verbs denote duration, repetition or repetition of an action: to shake, to shake and so on.; one-time - one-time and instantaneous action: jump off, splash out and so on.
In the group of imperfective verbs, there are verbs that denote movement, movement in space and have two forms: a) non-multiple verbs that denote a single movement occurring in one specific direction: run, wander, lead, carry, drive, go, go, roll, climb, fly, carry, swim, crawl, drag; b) multiple verbs denoting movement, either continuous, but multidirectional, or unidirectional, but intermittent: run, wander, drive, carry, drive, ride, walk, ride, climb, fly, carry, swim.
The main grammatical differences between the types concern the meanings and forms of tense:
1) imperfective verbs have forms of present, past and future tense; perfective verbs do not have present tense forms;
2) for imperfective verbs, the future tense is complex ( I will do), and for perfective verbs - simple ( I'll do it);
3) imperfective verbs form active and passive present participles; perfective verbs do not have these participles;
4) the imperfective participle most often denotes an action simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb, and the perfect participle denotes a preceding action.
Speciation. When forming verb types, the initial form, with few exceptions, is the verb with the meaning of the imperfect form. Speciation of verbs is carried out according to strict laws.
The process of forming the verb SV from the verb NV is perfectification. On the contrary – imperfectification. In the process of speciation of verbs, aspectual chains are formed (the sum of successive binary oppositions of the verbs NV and SV, formed from one original verb). The classic complete CC consists of 4 links: NV - SV - NV - SV.
1st link – the initial form is the unprefixed verb NV, if there is one in the language. Most prefixless verbs are NV (exceptions: give, child, lie down, sit down, stand up, buy).
2nd link - verb SV, formed from the 1st link in one of the ways (prefixal - paint - paint; suffixal - push - push; by changing the suffix a to and - decide - decide; prefix-suffixal or prefix-postfixal - drink - get drunk; some are formed suppletive - to speak - to say). Also, all SV verbs with a non-derivative base (buy, lie down, sit down, give) belong to the 2nd link.
3rd link - verbs of secondary NV, formed from verbs SV (by adding the suffixes ыва/Ива - rewrite - rewrite (except ыва with the meaning of secondary NV there is a homonym with the meaning of a long-past multiple action - sat - sat - no speciation); by adding the suffix a/ya - to captivate - to captivate; by transferring the stress - to sleep - to sleep; with the help of the suffix Eva - to extend - to extend; in different ways from non-prefixes - to sit down - to sit down).
4th link – from prefixed verbs NV of the 3rd link using a secondary prefix. Usually prefixes are used - completeness, excessiveness of action; by – coverage of many objects. The formation of a species pair between the 3rd and 4th links is impossible, because the prefix always introduces a derivational meaning (pull out - pull out).
A complete species chain consists of 4 links: paint - paint - paint - paint. However, all levels of this system in the Russian language are not always filled; they remain unfilled for various reasons, the main one being lack of demand by speakers. Verbs of the 4th link overly specify the action, therefore they are more often used in colloquial, dialect speech and vernacular speech. Sometimes the CC starts from the 2nd link, because The first one fell out (to oblige - to oblige). If in the first and second links the prefix has only a specific meaning, then the 3rd link is not formed. In the CC, speciation is intertwined with word formation (shout – shout – scream – the CC is interrupted – pure word formation). Most of the correlative relations between pairs of the 2nd and 3rd units - suffixes are most grammaticalized, but there are cases when the LL is complicated (wave - wave). The species category differs almost complete absence purely grammatical means.
Aspect pairs of verbs. When forming verbs of one type from another using prefixes, two results are possible: a) attaching a prefix to an imperfective verb introduces the meaning inherent in the prefix into the meaning of the verb, as a result of which the lexical meaning of the original verb changes and the formed perfective verb does not correspond in meaning to the non-prefixed verb (cf. : fly - fly over, take off and so on.); b) the addition of a prefix, creating a perfective meaning for the original verb, does not change the lexical meaning of the verb, as a result of which the unprefixed (original) and prefixed (derived) verbs differ only in appearance and form correlative aspectual pairs (cf.: go blind - go blind, dine - dine and so on.). In the latter case, the prefix loses its lexical meaning and turns into a grammatical means of forming the form. This phenomenon is observed especially often in relation to consoles: o- (about-, about-), according to; s- (co-): to blind, to please, to anger, to build, to do; less often - for; y; on the; vz-: strangle, drown, sharpen, sweat; and very rarely - from; at; You; times-: scare, prepare, grow, stir up.
Most verbs in the Russian language form correlative pairs of imperfect and perfect forms. The most productive type of such formation is a specific pair of perfective prefixed verbs and corresponding imperfective prefixed verbs with a suffix -yva- (-iva-)(cf.: cut out - cut out). When forming correlative species pairs of this type, it is possible (as an additional indicator of the species) to alternate root vowels o//a, if the perfective verb is not stressed on the root vowel (cf.: build - build up, accumulate - accumulate). Alternation o//a is not stable if the perfective verb has stress on the root sound [o], formations with [a] are possible in the literary language ( double, arrange, master, challenge, cajole, touch, honor etc.) and formations with [o] ( disturb, condition, preoccupy, disgrace, vulgarize, summarize, enchant, scatter, wrinkle, legitimize, empower, strengthen, accelerate). Such parallel forms are characteristic of different styles of literary language.
An equally productive type of aspectual pairs of verbs is the ratio of unprefixed imperfective verbs and unprefixed perfective verbs with a suffix -well(cf.: push - push) and the ratio of unprefixed and prefixed verbs with prefixes of grammatical meaning (cf. praise - praise, do - do, timid - timid and so on.).
In the circle of unproductive formation of species pairs, the following groups are distinguished: 1) decide - decide, decorate - decorate and so on.; 2) bake - bake, get off - get off and so on.; 3) avoid - avoid, get used to - get used to and so on.; 4) fill - fill, wash away - wash away, survey - survey and so on.; 5) paired verbs that differ only in the place of stress (cf.: cut - cut) and 6) paired verbs expressed by words with different stems (subpletive forms): talk - say(others see above).
Verbs that do not have other pairs. Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) unprefixed verbs with a suffix -yva- (-iva-) with the meaning of multiplicity. In modern literary language, such verbs are used exclusively in the form of the past tense with the meaning of the prescription of the action: he used to say, sat, saw, etc.; b) prefixed verbs (bookish) with suffixes -yva- (-iva-), -a, -e, -i ingratiate, regret By- and suffix -yva-(-iva-) cough, glance and etc.; with attachments under-, under- and suffixes -yva- (-iva-), -va- and etc.; with attachment re- and affix -xia and etc.
By- think about it, hold back behind- And By- re-, from-, to- -Well- to gush, burst -and-: need, find.
Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) unprefixed verbs with a suffix -yva- (-iva-) with the meaning of multiplicity. In modern literary language, such verbs are used exclusively in the form of the past tense with the meaning of how long ago the action was: used to say, sat, saw, etc.; b) prefixed verbs (bookish) with suffixes -yva- (-iva-), -a, -e, -i with the meaning of a process not limited to achieving a result: ingratiate, regret and etc.; c) verbs with a prefix By- and suffix -yva-(-iva-) with the meaning of multiple, intermittent action: cough, glance and etc.; with attachments under-, under- and suffixes -yva- (-iva-), -va- with the meaning of the accompanying action: whistle, sow, condemn and etc.; with attachment re- and affix -xia with the meaning of duration and reciprocity of action: shout to one another, exchange fire and etc.
Unpaired verbs of the perfect form include: a) verbs with the prefix By-, indicating a time limitation: lie down, sit, dream etc., as well as with several prefixes think about it, hold back and others belonging to the conversational style; b) verbs with prefixes behind- And By- with the action start value: walk, thunder, run, pour and etc.; c) verbs with prefixes re-, from-, to- with the meaning of completion, effectiveness of action: make noise, interrogate, spoil and etc.; d) verbs with suffix -Well- with the value of intensive onset of action: to gush, burst etc. and e) some verbs with a suffix -and-: need, find.
Two-type verbs. Verbs that combine the meanings of the perfective and imperfective forms are bi-specific, but under the conditions of the context they can have a meaning characteristic of one type. These are verbs with suffixes -ova(t), -irova(t): organize, telephone and so on.; some verbs with suffixes -a(t), -i(t), -e(t): promise, crown, marry, execute, say, wound, command.
In some verbs, the difference in aspectual meaning is associated with a specific lexical meaning m; compare: Crowd of peopleranbehind us(P.) (imperfect form) - Somebodyranfrom Moscow, and orders are given to detain everyone(P.) (perfect form), and sometimes is expressed only in separate forms (cf.: gave birthA - perfect look and genusAnd la- imperfect species).
Instructions
All Verbs divisible by two kind. To begin with, we should define the term “species”. Aspect is a verbal category that shows how an action occurs in time and expresses the relationship of the action to its result. Category kind in any form, have everything Verbs Russian language. How , Verbs perfect and imperfect kind.
Definition of imperfective verbs kind Verbs of the imperfect kind called Verbs, answering the question "?" and denoting an action without indicating the outcome, as well as without limiting it in time, the action is long or repeated (, look, talk, sit, stand).
Verbs imperfect and perfect kind form pairs by type. A species pair is made up of an imperfect kind and perfect verb kind having the same lexical meaning and differing only in meaning kind: look - view, write - write, build - build, run - come running.
note
on interspecific connections of verbs
To consolidate the studied material, it is necessary to select a large number of examples
Sources:
- Determining types of verbs
- perfect verb
The term "verb" came into our speech from Ancient Rus'. In those distant times, the Slavs called their alphabet “Glagolitic”. IN modern language This part of speech occupies an important place. Verb words are often found in sentences and, together with the subject, form the grammatical basis. The verb has a number of grammatical features and can be the main and secondary member of a sentence.
Instructions
The action and state of an object are conveyed with the help of , having unchangeable signs of perfect or imperfect form, transitivity - intransitivity, reflexivity - irrevocability and conjugation.
The imperfect is more common in our speech. Usually morphemes help to form the perfect from it: “look - look”, “shout - shout”. But it also happens the other way around: “-to stitch”, “to decide-to decide.” Such verb variants represent aspect pairs.
If verbs can control nouns that appear with them in the accusative case, and the connection between them is expressed without the help of a preposition, then they will be considered: “show”, “cook”, “”. Intransitives are not characterized by such subordinating connection: “to be absent”, “to take a closer look”, “to sit”.
The suffix -sya (-s) indicates that the verb is reflexive. Non-returnables do not have such a suffix. It should be remembered that reflexivity indicates intransitivity.
Conjugation is indicated by a set of endings when changing according to persons and numbers. It’s easy to recognize this sign if the personal ending of the verb is stressed. If the conjugation is not established, you need to pay attention to the infinitive. All, excluding “shave” and “lay”, verbs ending in -it, and several excluded from this list (on -et, -at) - constitute II conjugation. The rest represent the I conjugation. Among the verbs, several different conjugations stand out: “to want”, “to run”, “to honor”.
The existing category of verb mood helps to establish how the actions performed relate to reality. Verb words in each mood have a certain set of characteristics. Indicative verbs convey actions that actually occur. The concept of the category of time is applied to them. The present and future tenses tend to change according to persons and numbers, and the past, instead of a person, according to gender. The imperative contains a call to action. A similar form of the verb can form a unity with the words “yes”, “come on”, “let”. The possibility and certain conditions of action are indicated by the conditional mood, in which the verb is necessarily in the past tense and has the particle “would (b)”.
There may be no person or object performing the action. The purpose of such verb words is to convey various states nature or man. They have a corresponding name - “impersonal”. Examples of the use of such verbs in impersonal sentences: “It was getting dark outside,” “I’m chilling.”
Regular appointment verb in sentences - to act as a predicate. Its syntactic functions expand when it is used in: here it can be the subject and perform the function of a sentence. Consider different variants: “Whistle (tale) everyone up!”, “Tourists began to carefully move (part of the predicate) forward”, “Learning (subject) will always come in handy”, “The guests asked to turn on (additional) music louder”, “The boy expressed a desire take (def.) volleyball seriously”, “I came to see (obv.) you.”
note
Linguistic scientists have two points of view regarding participles and gerunds formed from verbs: they are distinguished as independent parts of speech or verb forms.
Sources:
- general characteristics verb as part of speech
Slavic languages sharply contrasted with other Indo-European languages in the forms of expression of the categories of tense and aspect. Modern system species developed in linguistics only at the beginning of the 20th century. In order to correctly determine the type of verb in Russian, it is necessary to take into account a number of reasons.
The aspect of the verb is the lexico-grammatical category of the verb, expressing the relation of the action to its internal limit. The internal limit is the point in the course of an action when action turns into inaction.
History of the verb aspect category
Until the 20th century In linguistics, 3 types were distinguished:
1. An indefinite appearance, coinciding with the modern imperfect appearance.
2. Multiple view. Examples are: sat, walked.
3. One-time appearance, matching the modern perfect appearance.
In modern linguistics, it is customary to distinguish grammatical types of a verb on the basis of semantics, i.e. meanings.
In Russian grammar, there are perfect and imperfect forms.
This can be determined based on the following grounds:
1) Based on semantics.
Perfective verbs denote an action that has reached an internal limit (for example: , did). Imperfective verbs denote an action that has not reached an internal limit (for example: looked, did).
2) For questions.
Perfective verbs answer the question “what to do?”, and imperfective verbs answer the question “?”. For example: (what did you do?) looked, (what did you do?) looked.
3) Based on word formation.
The perfect is formed with the help of prefixes, the imperfect with the help of suffixes. Thus, verbs of the perfect form “looked, did” have prefixes, but verbs of the imperfect form “looked, did” do not.
4) By compatibility.
Imperfective verbs are combined with adverbs “long”, “slowly”, with the words “every day” and others, but perfective verbs do not have this option. So, you can say “I looked for a long time,” but you cannot use the expression “I looked for a long time.”
5) By difference in the set of word forms.
Perfective verbs cannot be in the present tense, and imperfective verbs cannot have 3rd tense forms.
The meaning of the verb morphological characteristics and syntactic function
Verb - This independent part speech that denotes an action, state or attitude and answers questions what to do? what to do?: work, clean, get sick, be afraid, want, be wealthy. All forms verb have morphological characteristics of type (they can be perfect or imperfect) and transitivity (they can be transitive or intransitive). Among the verb forms there are differences conjugated(change according to moods, tenses, persons or genders, as well as numbers) and unconjugated(initial form verb, participles and gerunds).
In a sentence, conjugated verbal forms play the role of a predicate (they have special forms of predication - forms of mood and tense), non-conjugated verbal forms can also be other members of the sentence. For example: Mermaid swam along the blue river, illuminated full moon... (M. Lermontov); So thought a young rake, flying in the dust on postage... (A. Pushkin).
Infinitive
The initial (dictionary) form of the verb is infinitive, or infinitive(from Latin infiniti - vus - “uncertain”). The infinitive denotes an action regardless of mood, tense, person, number, that is, without its connection with the actor (subject).
The infinitive is an unchangeable form of the verb, which has only constant morphological features of the verb: aspect, transitivity/intransitivity, reflexivity/nonreflexivity, type of conjugation. (If the conjugated verb forms have an unstressed ending, then the type of conjugation is determined by the infinitive.)
The formal indicators of the infinitive are suffixes -t, -t(at school they are usually considered as graduations). Suffix -th comes after vowels (watch, think, sing), A -ty- after consonants (carry, carry, weave). Some verbs end in the infinitive with -ch: bake, protect, flow, be able and etc.; historically in -whose merged infinitive indicator -ty and the final root sound [G] or [To]: shape type “bake”, “take care” as a result of phonetic changes transformed into "oven", "preserve" and so on.
In a sentence, the infinitive can be any part of the sentence. For example: 1) Be in love for others - a heavy cross... (B. Pasternak); 2) He [Startsev] decided to go to the Turkins(for what purpose?) see what kind of people they are (A. Chekhov); 3) I acted carelessly, indulging in the sweet habit of seeing and hearing you every day (A. Pushkin); 4) The cleanest shirts orders captain put on!_ (B. Okudzhava).
Note. Example (2) - with verbs of motion (leave, come in etc.) or stopping movement (stop, stay, sit down etc.) the infinitive is a circumstance of the goal (names the goal of movement or cessation of movement): Sometimes he stopped in the sands(for what purpose?) relax (K. Paustovsky).
Example (4) - the infinitive is not included in the predicate and is an addition in the sentence if it denotes the action of another person (object) other than the one named as the subject.
Verb Basics
The verb has two basics: infinitive stem And basis of present/simple future tense.(Sometimes it also stands out past tense basis but for most verbs it coincides with the stem of the infinitive.) Some verb forms are formed from basics infinitive, and the other part is from basics present/simple future tense. These two basics Many verbs are different.
To highlight the base of the infinitive, you need to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: carried- you, pussy- yea, speak up- oh, read- ugh, rice- t.
To highlight the basis of the present/simple future tense, you need to separate the personal ending from the form of the present/simple future tense (usually the 3rd person form is taken plural): carried- ut, write- ut, dialect- yat, read j - ut, pucyj - ut.
To highlight basis past tense, you need to discard the formative suffix -l- and the ending from the past tense form (you can use any form except the masculine singular form, since it can contain a zero suffix, which makes it difficult to isolate basics): carried- l-a, pisa- l-ah, speak- l-a, read- l-a, rice- l-a.
There are verbs that have the same basics infinitive and present/simple future tense, and the past tense stem differs from them: eid- here you go- ut, w- l-a. basics different: I'll get wet- ugh, wet- ut, wet- l-a; tere- tb, tr- ut, ter- l-a. There are verbs that have all three basics match up: carried- you, carried- ut, carried- la.
Verb forms that are formed from the infinitive stem | Verb forms that are formed from the stem of the present/simple future tense |
1. Forms of the past tense of the indicative mood: carried, wrote, spoke, read, drew. | 1. Forms of the present and simple future tense of the indicative mood: I'm carrying it, I'll write it, I say, 4 umaj- y (spelling - reading), pucyj- y(I draw). |
2. Forms of conditional mood: would carry, write, speak, read, draw. | 2. Forms of the imperative mood: carry, write, speak, read) (read), rice) (draw). |
3. Active past participles: carrying, writing, speaking, reading, drawing. | 3. Active present participles: carrying, writing, speaking, reading j-ush-y (reader),pucyj-ush-y (drawing). |
4. Passive participles past tense: carried away, written, drawn-nn-yp. | 4. Present passive participles: nes-ohm-y, talk-i.ch-y, chitauem-y (readable), pucyj-um-y (drawn). |
5. Perfect participles: writing, speaking, reading, drawing. | 5. Imperfect participles: I'm not saying, I read" ja (reading)pucyj- a(drawing). |
Verb type
Verbs in Russian belong to one of two types: to imperfect or to perfect.
Verbs perfect form answer the question what to do? and denote an action limited in its duration, having an internal limit, completeness. Perfect Verbs can denote an action that has ended (or will end) having achieved a result (learn, draw), an action that has begun (or will begin), and this very beginning of the action is understood as its boundary, limit (play, sing), one-time action (push, shout, jump- verbs with suffix -Well).
Verbs imperfect form answer the question what to do? and denote an action without instructions
to its limit, without limiting its course in time, the action is long or repeated (teach, draw, play, shout).
Imperfect and perfect verbs form species pairs. The species pair consists of imperfective verb and a perfective verb, having the same lexical meaning and differing only in meaning kind: read- read, write - write, build- build.
Imperfect verbs are formed from perfective verbs using suffixes:
1) -iva-, -yva-: consider- examine, question- ask, sign- sign;
2) -va: open- open, give- give, put on- put on shoes;
3) -a-(-s): save- save, grow up- grow up.
Perfective verbs are formed from imperfective verbs in various ways:
1) using view attachments on-, with-, pro-, you-, on- and etc,: treat- cure, bake- bake, make- do, write - write, read- read, build- build, teach- learn etc. (But more often, with the help of a prefix, perfective verbs are formed, which differ from imperfective verbs not only in the meaning of the aspect, but also in a change in the lexical meaning; such verbs do not form an aspectual pair: read- reread, recount, read out etc.);
2) using a suffix -well-: get used to it- get used to it, nod- nod, jump- jump.
Some verbs that make up an aspectual pair may differ only in the place of stress: scatter- scatter, chop- slice.
Separate aspect pairs are made up of verbs with different roots: speak- say, search- find, put- put, take- take.
Some verbs are single-species. They do not form a species pair and are either only perfect form (to find yourself, rush, sleep, scream etc.), or only imperfect form (prevail, be present, sit, be).
There are also bispecies verbs that combine meaning with perfect and imperfect forms. Their appearance is determined from the context: marry, execute, wound, order, as well as verbs with suffixes -ova(t), -irova(t): influence, use, automate, asphalt, telegraph etc. For example: The guns are firing from the pier, they are ordering the ship to land (what are they doing?) (A. Pushkin); Would you like me to order (what will I do?) bring the rug? (N. Gogol).
Verb type influences the formation of its forms (primarily forms of time): in imperfect verbs in the indicative mood there are forms of all three tenses (and in the future tense they have a complex form) and a full set of tense forms of participles; at perfective verbs There are no forms of the present tense in the indicative mood (the form of the future tense is simple) and present participles.
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Vary verbs transitive and intransitive.
Transitional Verbs denote an action that is directly aimed at an object. They may carry a direct object in the accusative case without a preposition, answering the question who?"/what?", write an article, knit a sweater, sing a song.
Instead of the accusative case, the object of a transitive verb can also appear in genitive case without preposition:
1) if there is a negative particle Not before a transitive verb: understood the problem- did not understand the task; read the novel- haven't read the novel; Waste time- don't waste time;
2) if the action does not transfer to the entire object, but only to part of it: drank water(all the water in question) - drank water(Part), bring firewood- bring firewood.
When determining transitivity/intransitivity of verbs It is also necessary to take into account the meaning of the noun in the form of the accusative case - it must name the object of the action. Wed: stand for an hour (in line) or live for a week (at sea), where the verbs are not transitive, although they are followed by nouns in the accusative case without a preposition: All night long(V.p. with the meaning of time, not object) thundered(intransitive verb) a neighboring ravine, a stream, bubbling, ran towards the stream (A. Fet).
Verbs that cannot be carried direct object, are intransitive: to engage(how?) sports, understand(in what?) in music, refuse(from what?) from help.
Note. Transitivity/intransitivity closely related to the lexical meaning of the verb: in one meaning verb can be transitive, and in the other - intransitive. Wed: I'm telling the truth (I'm telling- “I express” is a transitive verb). The child is already speaking (speaking- “talks” - intransitive verb); Tomorrow I will go alone, I will teach(intransitive verb) at school and I will give my whole life to those who may need it (A. Chekhov); learn lessons(transitive verb).
Reflexive verbs
TO reflexive verbs include verbs with a postfix -sya, -sya. All reflexive verbs are intransitive. They are formed both from transitive verbs (distinguish - differ, please- rejoice, dress- dress), and from intransitives (knock- knock, blacken- turn black). From ordinary derivational suffixes -xia differs in that it is attached to verb forms after endings (knocking, knocking). Suffix -xia is added after consonants, and -s- after vowels (studied- studied); in participle forms and after vowels it is added -sya, and not -s: differing - differing.
When joining transitive verbs, the suffix -xia turns them into intransitive: dresses whom?/what?- gets dressed. By joining intransitive verbs, -xia enhances the meaning of intransitivity: turns white- turns white.
Suffix -xia also serves to form impersonal forms from personal verbs: I am not sleeping- I can't sleep, I want- I would like to.
Among verbs with suffix -xia there are also those that do not have parallel forms without this suffix: laugh, hope, bow, fight and etc.
Verb conjugations
Conjugation - this is a change in the verb by persons and numbers. (Term conjugated forms the verb is used in a broader sense than the term conjugation . The conjugated forms of the verb include all forms except the infinitive, participles and gerunds, i.e. forms of all moods.)
Depending on the personal endings in the Russian language, it is customary to distinguish two conjugations - I and II, which differ from each other by vowel sounds in the endings: carry, sing, speak, remain silent, carry, sing, speak, remain silent, carry, sing, speak, remain silent, carry, sing, speak, remain silent, carry, sing, speak, remain silent
I conjugation | II conjugation |
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If the ending is stressed, conjugation determined by the end: you call, you lead - I conjugation, you're burning, you're sleeping- II conjugation.
But most verbs conjugation has no emphasis on personal endings. In such cases conjugation is determined by the infinitive (by the vowel that comes before the infinitive suffix).
Ko II conjugation These include those verbs with an unstressed personal ending in which 1) the infinitive ends in -i-t (carry, saw, spend etc.), except for verbs shave, lay, rare verbs rest on(“to be founded, to be built”) and be ruffled(“to waver, to sway, to swell”). (Verbs rest on And be ruffled are used only in the 3rd person unit form. and plural numbers, other forms are not used.); 2) exception verbs whose infinitive ends in -e-t (look, see, hate, offend, depend, endure, twirl) and on -a-th (drive, hold, hear, breathe).
All other verbs with unstressed personal endings belong to I conjugation.
It should be remembered that prefixed verbs formed from unprefixed verbs belong to the same type conjugations, as without prefixes (drive- catch up- overtake- kick out etc. - II conjugation). Verbs with -sya (s) belong to the same type of conjugation as without -sya (-s) (drive- chase- II conjugation).
In the Russian language there are also differently conjugated verbs, in which some forms are formed according to I conjugation, and others - according to II. These include: 1) want- in the singular it changes according to I conjugation (Want- Want- wants), and in the plural - according to II (we want- want to- want); 2) run, which has all forms like verbs of II conjugation (running- you're running- runs- let's run- run), except 3rd person plural. numbers - are running(according to I conjugation); 3) honor- varies according to II conjugation (honor- honors- we honor- honor), except 3rd person plural. numbers (honor) although there is a form honor which is now used less frequently than honor; 4) disdain(“dawn, glow a little”) - used only in the 3rd person singular form (it's dawning- II conjugation) and plural (they are dawning- I conjugation): Dawn is just breaking; The stars are faintly shining in the sky.
Uncharacteristic for verbs I and II conjugations verbs have an ending system (archaic) eat, bother, give, create(and their prefix derivatives: overeat, overeat, hand over, give away, betray, recreate and etc.).
eat f-e-e eats | I'll give you give you give |
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eat eat eat eat | give it, they'll give it to them |
Verb be also unique. From him, rarely used forms of the 3rd person singular have been preserved in modern Russian. and plural numbers of the present tense - There is And essence: A straight line is the shortest distance between two points; The most common general abstractions accepted by almost all historians are: freedom, equality, enlightenment, progress, civilization, culture (L. Tolstoy), and the future tense is formed from another root: will- you will- will- we will- you will- there will be.
It should be remembered that verbs are conjugated (changed according to persons and numbers) only in the present and simple future tense. If the form of the future is complex (in imperfective verbs), then only auxiliary be, and the main verb is taken in the infinitive. Verbs in the past tense are not conjugated (they do not change according to persons).
Verb mood
Verbs change according to mood. Form moods shows how the action relates to reality: whether the action is real (taking place in reality), or unreal (desired, required, possible under certain conditions).
In Russian, verbs have forms of three moods: indicative, conditional (subjunctive) and imperative.
Verbs in indicative mood denote a real action that is happening, has happened or will actually happen in a certain time (present, past or future). Verbs in the indicative mood change over time: I'm doing(present time), was studying(past tense), I'll study(Future tense).
Verbs in conditional mood do not indicate real actions, but desired, possible ones. Conditional forms are formed from an infinitive stem (or past tense stem) with the help of a suffix -l-(followed by an ending with the meaning of number and in the singular - gender) and particles would (b)(which can come before the verb, after it, or can be torn away from it). For example: If I were a poet, I would live like a goldfinch and would not whistle in a cage, but on a branch at dawn (Yu. Moritz).
IN conditional verbs vary by number and gender (there is no tense or person in this mood): would have passed, would have passed, would have passed, would have passed.
Verbs in imperative mood denote an incentive to action (request, order), that is, they denote not a real action, but a required one. Verbs in the imperative mood change according to numbers and persons (there is also no time in this mood).
The most common forms are the 2nd person singular and plural, which express the motivation for action of the interlocutor (interlocutors).
Form 2 faces unit. numbers are formed from the stem of the present/simple future tense using a suffix -And- or without a suffix (in this case, the stem of the verb in the imperative mood coincides with the stem of the present/simple future tense): talk, see, write, hold, work(the basis of the present tense is pa6 omaj- ym), rest (rest)-ut), remember (rememberj-ut), cut (cut), stand up (will stand up).
2nd person plural form numbers are formed from the 2nd person singular form. numbers using endings -those: speak- \those\, hold- \those\, for-remember- \those\ And etc.
Forms 3rd person unit. and many more numbers express the motivation to action of one or those who are not participating in the dialogue. They are formed using particles let, let, yes + shapes 3rd person unit. or more indicative numbers: let them go, let them go, long live, long liveetc.: Yes they know descendants of the Orthodox land of their native land have suffered a past fate (A. Pushkin).
1st person plural form numbers expresses an impulse to joint action, in which the speaker himself is a participant. It is formed using particles come on, come on + infinitive of imperfective verbs (Let's, let's + sing, dance, play) or 4- form of 1st person plural. indicative numbers of perfective verbs (come on, let's + sing, dance, play): Let's talk compliment each other... (B. Okudzhava); Let's drop words are like a garden- amber and zest... (B. Pasternak); Comrade life, Let's quickly let's trample, trample According to the five-year plan, the days are left... (V. Mayakovsky).
Mood forms can be used not only in their literal meaning, but also in figurative meaning, that is, in the meaning characteristic of another mood.
For example, the imperative form can; have the meanings of the conditional mood (1) and indicative mood (2): 1) Do not be It’s God’s will, we wouldn’t give up Moscow (M. Lermontov);2) Since he told him Tell:“I see, Azamat, that you really liked this horse” (M. Lermontov).
Verb in the indicative mood can be used in the imperative sense: However, it is already dark in the field; hurry up! went, went, Andryushka! (A. Pushkin); The commandant walked around his army, telling the soldiers: “Well, kids, let's wait today for Mother Empress and we will prove to the whole world that we are brave and sworn people” (A. Pushkin).
The conditional form can have an imperative meaning: Daddy, you I'd like to talk to Alexandra, she is behaving desperately (M. Gorky).
Verb tense
In the indicative mood, verbs change tenses. Forms of time express the relationship of action to the moment of speech. In the Russian language there are forms of three tenses: present, past and future. The number of tense forms and the way they are formed depends on the type of verb. Imperfective verbs have three forms of tense, and their future form is complex. Perfective verbs have only two forms of tense (they do not have a present tense), the future form is simple.
Form present time shows that the action coincides with the moment of speech or is carried out constantly, regularly repeated: Full steam ahead rushes train, wheels twirls steam locomotive... (B. Pasternak); Oh how murderous we are we love you How V in the violent blindness of passions we are most likely we're ruining whatever is dearer to our hearts! (F. Tyutchev).
Only imperfective verbs have present tense forms. They are formed with the help of endings that are attached to the base of the present tense and indicate at the same time not only the time, but also the person and number. The set of endings depends on the conjugation.
Form past tense shows that the action precedes the moment of speech: We all learned a little something and somehow... (A. Pushkin).
Past tense forms are formed from the infinitive stem using a suffix -l-, followed by an ending with the meaning of the number and in units. number - kind: sang, sang, sang, sang.
Some verbs have a suffix -l- absent in the masculine form: drove, rubbed, grew, shored, froze and etc.
Past verb tense go is formed from another base, different from the base of an indefinite form: go- walked, walked, walked, walked.
Form future tense indicates that the action will occur after the moment of speech: The cold will come, the leaves will fall off- and it will be ice- water (G. Ivanov).
Both imperfective and perfective verbs have future tense forms, but they are formed differently.
Shapes of the future verb tenses perfective forms are formed from the base of the simple future tense using the same endings as the forms of the present verb tenses imperfect form (this form is called form simple future tense): I will write, I will tell, I will bring.
Shapes of the future verb tenses imperfections are formed by joining forms will, will, will, will, will, will to the infinitive of an imperfective verb (this form is called the form complex future tense): I will write, I will tell, I will carry.
Forms of tense can be used not only in their basic meaning, but also in a figurative meaning characteristic of forms of other tenses.
Present tense forms can denote an action preceding the moment of speech (the use of present tense forms in a story about the past is called present historical): Only, you understand, I'm going out from the world, look- my horses are worth quietly near Ivan Mikhailovich (I. Bunin).
Present tense forms can also denote an action following the moment of speech (future tense meaning): I'm all ready, I'm after lunch I'm sending things. The Baron and I tomorrow let's get married tomorrow we're leaving to the brick factory, and the day after tomorrow I’m already at school, begins new life (A. Chekhov).
Past tense forms can be used to mean future tense: Run, run! Otherwise I died (K. Fedin).
Future tense forms can have past tense meaning: Gerasim looked and looked, and suddenly he laughed (I. Turgenev).
Person, number and gender of the verb
Forms verb faces express the relationship of the action indicated by the verb to the speaking person.
There are three different verb faces: first, second and third.
Form first faces the only one numbers denotes the speaker's action: I'll sing, I'll come in.
Form first faces plural numbers denotes the action of a group of people, which includes the speaker: Let's eat, let's go.
Form second faces singular indicates the action of the interlocutor: eat, come in.
Form second faces plural denotes the action of a group of people, which includes the interlocutor: sing, come in.
Forms third faces singular and plural denote the actions of one or those who do not participate in the dialogue, i.e. is not a speaker or interlocutor: sings, comes in, sings, comes in.
Category faces And numbers Verbs They have only the present and future tenses of the indicative mood and the imperative mood. Verbs in the past tense and in the conditional mood have no category faces, but vary according to numbers And childbirth:(I, you, he) led\ \ - male genus, (me, you, she) led\a\- female genus, (me, you, it) vel-\o\- average genus, (we you they) vel-\and\- plural number.
Not all Russian verbs have a full set of personal forms.
In Russian there are so-called insufficient And redundant Verbs.
Insufficient verbs do not have a full set of forms for one reason or another. Some verbs do not have a 1st form faces units numbers, since they are difficult for pronunciations:to win, to convince, to convince, to dissuade, to find oneself, to feel, to overshadow, to dare etc. In cases where it is still necessary to use the 1st form the faces of these verbs, resort to a descriptive method; I have to win, I want to convince, I can find myself.
A number of verbs do not use the 1st and 2nd forms faces singular and plural numbers for semantic reasons (these verbs name processes occurring in nature or in the animal world): calve, whelp, rust, dawn, turn white, brighten, resound(about sound) flare up and so on.
In modern Russian, the opposite phenomenon also occurs, when some verbs form forms faces present (or simple future) tense is two different ways: splash- splashes / splashes, drips- drips/drips, splash- splashes/splashes, poke- pokes/pokes, wave- waves/waves and etc.
Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs - these are verbs that name actions or states that occur as if by themselves, without the participation of the actor: to shiver, to feel sick, to be unwell, to get light, to dawn, to get cold, to evening, to get dark etc. They denote the states of man or nature.
These verbs do not change for persons and do not combine with personal pronouns. They are used as predicates impersonal offers, and the subject with them is impossible.
Impersonal verbs have only the infinitive form (dawn, chill), form coinciding with the 3rd person singular form (it’s dawning, it’s chilling), and the neuter singular form (it was getting light, it was chilly).
Group impersonal verbs is replenished by personal verbs by adding a postfix to them -sya: I can’t read, I can’t sleep, I can’t believe it, easily breathe, live etc.
Quite often, personal verbs are used to mean impersonal. Wed: Lilac smells(personal verb) good o And Smells(personal verb in impersonal meaning) hay over the meadows (A. Maikov); The wind bends the trees to the ground and makes me sleepy; Something is getting dark in the distance And It gets dark early in winter.
Morphological analysis of the verb includes highlighting four permanent signs(aspect, reflexivity, transitivity, conjugation) and five non-constant ones (mood, tense, person, number, gender). The number of permanent verb features can be increased by including features such as verb class and stem type.
Scheme morphological analysis verb. I. Part of speech. 1. Initial form(indefinite form). 2. Permanent signs: 2) repayment; 3) transitivity-intransitivity; 4) conjugation. 3. Variable signs: 1) inclination; 2) time (if any); 3) face (if any); 5) gender (if any). III. Syntactic function. Listen carefully, standing in the forest or among an awakened flowering field... (I. Sokolov-Mikitov) | Sample morphological analysis of a verb. I. Listen- verb, denotes action: (what do you do?) listen. II. Morphological characteristics. 1.The initial form is to listen. 2. Permanent signs: 1) perfect form; 2) returnable; 3) intransitive; 4) I conjugation. 3. Variable signs: 3) 2nd person; 4) plural; III. In a sentence it is a simple verbal predicate. |
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