Criminal punishments associated with the amputation of body parts of a criminal - cutting off hands, gouging out eyes, and so on - were of a kind of preventive nature. They were used so that everyone around them could clearly see what exactly the villain was guilty of.
“Member-mutilation” executions have been known to mankind for several millennia. Moreover, they were usually carried out publicly, since they also had to intimidate those around them, so that they would be “discouraged.”
Chinese "ceremonies"
The first mentions of such “prevention” came from. In particular, there is a document related to the reign of the Zhou dynasty in the 19th century BC. This is the treatise “Zhou Li”, created, according to scientists, by the followers of Confucius.
It provided for such punishments for committing criminal offenses as cutting off the nose, cutting off the ears, cutting off the feet or hands, and castration. Moreover, the castrati then went into action - they were used to guard palaces. Punishments were divided into five different categories, depending on severity crime committed. At the same time, murder, for example, was considered not the most serious. In the first place was an attempt to create unrest in the state. The second most serious crime was to mislead others with music, clothing, or unusual objects. The third is to preach false views, teach bad things and create division in society. The fourth is to deceive others with false visions and fortune telling.
And only in fifth place was murder. That is, the killer could have gotten away with just cutting off his nose or cutting off the hand that held the crime weapon.
As for cutting off feet, in Ancient China thieves were mainly punished this way. Men accused of adultery or rape were subjected to forced castration. That is, the current chemical castration sexual maniacs and pedophiles, the use of which is now being considered at the legislative level all over the world, is far from an invention modern civilization. In Ancient China, however, they simply cut off the corresponding parts of the body, but this does not change the essence.
Who taught whom?
There is an opinion that the atrocities that the crusaders committed during the raids on the pearl - the city of Jerusalem - in search of the Holy Sepulcher, they drew from the arsenal of the Holy Inquisition. Indeed, these figures in deep robes knew a lot about torture and punishment, including non-lethal ones, but causing terrible pain. However, if you trace the chronology, it is still unknown who learned what from whom. The fact is that the most active Crusades occurred between 1095 and 1290. Then the activity of the crusaders dropped sharply, and subsequently they generally lost power and influence in Palestine.
But the first mention of the Holy Inquisition is associated with Pope Innocent III and dates back to 1215. Well, the heyday of the Inquisition generally occurred in 1478, that is, 200 years after the end of the campaigns against Palestine. So we can say that torture methods were brought to Europe by the crusaders, who learned them in the East or invented them on their own.
For example, the crusaders often used torture such as cutting off the nose and ears against the captured residents of Palestine. The knights especially loved to torture eastern women in this way, who for some reason could not be sold as concubines. Not only were their noses or ears cut off, but their nipples were often cut out on their chests. A woman could no longer hide this kind of deformity, and after torture, most of them simply committed suicide, as they were doomed to loneliness, and therefore to a slow and painful death from hunger. On ancient East the woman was a completely powerless creature and physically could not feed herself.
Parents of the Iron Maiden
By the way, there is indirect evidence that it was the crusaders who taught the inquisitors to torture people. In the arsenal of the Holy Inquisition there is an instrument of non-fatal torture called a “pear”. This is a metal instrument consisting of pointed leaf-shaped segments. It was inserted, depending on the type of crime committed, into the anus, vagina or mouth of the victim. Then the executioner tightened the screw, and the segments inside human body blossomed, causing hellish pain to the victim. In this way, blasphemers, liars, women who gave birth out of wedlock, and men of non-traditional sexual orientation were usually punished. Some historians claim that this device was brought to Europe from the East by the Crusaders, who first saw its use there and decided to “adopt the experience.”
In general, as for the Holy Inquisition, it was armed with a whole arsenal of torture instruments, not
leading to death. Of course, almost all the victims who ended up in the dungeons of the monks never came out. But before death, they experienced hellish torment, which was achieved by these very “preventive” tortures during the investigation.
Blasphemers and liars had their tongues torn out by the roots. And they didn’t cut it off, but rather pulled it out with special forceps. The monks of the Holy See at first practiced not cutting off the nose, but tearing out the nostrils. But then it became clear that the nostrils can heal and grow tissue so that no trace of torture remains. That's when they started cutting off my entire nose.
There were also particularly sophisticated methods of torture, described in the treatise “The Hammer of the Witches,” created in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer. In particular, this treatise strongly recommended gouging out the eyes as prophylactic fight against witches. Firstly, the sadistic monks believed that witches cast their witchcraft and damage through their eyes. By the way, this is why squint was a sure sign that a person was either an evil sorcerer or a witch. And secondly, the inquisitors gouged out the eyes of those under investigation because “they saw the devil.”
But such a device as the “Iron Maiden” was invented only at the end of the 18th century, that is, at the end of the Inquisition. It was an “educational” torture, which was an iron sarcophagus in the shape of a human body, studded with sharp spikes from the inside. The victim was placed inside and locked with a tight lid, so that the spikes cut into the body, causing unbearable pain. If this was not enough, then holes were provided in the sarcophagus into which sharp rods or sabers were inserted. They also mutilated the body.
If the victim was left there for a long time, he would die from blood loss. But usually the inquisitors did not allow this. The person was taken out, after which he or she confessed to anything. What followed was the usual execution.
From Ivan to Peter
And finally... Here, similar methods of amputation of the “offending organ” were elevated to the rank of legal under Tsar Ivan the Terrible.
One of the first decrees of the young king in 1549 introduced throughout the country the practice of cutting off the hand of a thief who was re-caught committing a crime. In addition, from the middle of the 16th century, cutting off the hand of a slave who offered physical resistance to the owner, or cutting off the ears of a thief caught in the first theft, began to be used everywhere.
100 years later, in 1649, a new Code of Punishments was issued. According to it, the hand of anyone who brandished a weapon in the presence of the sovereign or wounded someone in the sovereign’s courtyard was cut off. A thief caught in the first theft had two fingers cut off, but the one who was caught in robbery or robbing a church was severely maimed - he was immediately chopped off left hand and right leg.
Cutting off ears was used against swindlers and card sharpers. Thieves were also punished for the third theft of fish from a cage or pond. It is interesting that Peter I actively used torture of Ivan the Terrible. In particular, during the reign of Peter, tearing out nostrils and cutting off noses was widely used in relation to runaway slaves or convicts. The tongue was cut out for blasphemy, “evil words” against the sovereign. Old Believers were especially often subjected to this torture in Rus'.
July 12, 2016 marks the 455th anniversary of one of the most famous architectural monuments Moscow - Intercession Cathedral Holy Mother of God on the Moat, which we know as St. Basil's Cathedral.
This famous cathedral, with its powerful walls and vaults, used to be used for hiding places. Deep niches were built in the walls of the basement, the entrance to which was closed by metal doors. There were heavy forged chests in which rich townspeople kept their valuable property - money, jewelry, utensils and books. The royal treasury was also kept there. What other legends and secrets does the temple that we call St. Basil’s Cathedral keep today?
Where did the name "St. Basil's Cathedral" come from?
Despite the fact that the cathedral was built in 1554 in honor of the victories of Ivan the Terrible over the Golden Horde, it was popularly named St. Basil's, after the name of the chapel added to the cathedral on the north-eastern side in 1588. It was built by order of the son of Ivan the Terrible - Fyodor Ioannovich over the grave of Blessed Vasily, who died in 1557, and was buried near the walls of the cathedral under construction. The holy fool walked naked in winter and summer, wearing iron chains; Muscovites loved him very much for his gentle disposition. In 1586, under Fyodor Ioannovich, the canonization of St. Basil took place. With the addition of St. Basil's Church, services in the cathedral became daily. Previously, the cathedral was not heated, since it was largely a memorial, and services were held in it only in the warm season. And the chapel of St. Basil's was warm and more spacious. Since then, the Intercession Cathedral has been known more as St. Basil's Cathedral.
Is it true that Ivan the Terrible gouged out the eyes of the temple builders?
The most common myth about the cathedral is the chilling story of gullible souls that Tsar Ivan IV allegedly ordered its builders, Postnik and Barma, to be blinded so that they would never be able to build anything else that could surpass and eclipse the newly erected architectural masterpiece. Meanwhile, there is no real historical evidence. Yes, the builders of the temple were really called Postnik and Barma. In 1896, Archpriest John Kuznetsov, who served in the temple, discovered a chronicle in which it was said that “The pious Tsar John came from the victory of Kazan to the reigning city of Moscow... And God gave him two Russian masters named Postnik and Barma and was wise and convenient for such a wonderful work ..." This is how the names of the cathedral’s builders became known for the first time. But there is not a word about blindness in the chronicles. Moreover, after completing the work in Moscow, Ivan Yakovlevich Barma took part in the construction of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the Kazan Kremlin and other iconic buildings, which are mentioned in the chronicles.
Is it true that the cathedral was originally intended to be so colorful?
No, this is a wrong opinion. The current appearance of the Intercession Cathedral is very different from its original appearance. It had white walls, strictly painted to resemble brick. All the polychrome and floral painting of the cathedral appeared only in the 1670s. By this time, the cathedral had already undergone significant reconstruction: two large porches were added - on the north and south sides. The external gallery was also covered with vaults. Today in the decoration of the Intercession Cathedral you can see frescoes of the 16th century, tempera painting of the 17th century, monumental oil painting of the 18th-19th centuries, and rare monuments of Russian icon painting.
Is it true that Napoleon wanted to move the temple to Paris?
During the War of 1812, when Napoleon occupied Moscow, the Emperor liked the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary so much that he decided to move it to Paris. The technology of that time did not allow this to happen. Then the French first built stables in the temple, and later simply planted explosives in the base of the cathedral and lit the fuse. The assembled Muscovites prayed for the salvation of the temple, and a miracle happened - heavy rain began, which extinguished the wick.
Is it true that Stalin saved the Cathedral from destruction?
The temple miraculously survived the October Revolution - marks from shells remained on its walls for a long time. In 1931, a bronze monument to Minin and Pozharsky was moved to the cathedral - the authorities cleared the area of unnecessary buildings for parades. Lazar Kaganovich, who was so successful in destroying the Kazan Cathedral of the Kremlin, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and a number of other churches in Moscow, proposed completely demolishing the Intercession Cathedral in order to further clear the place for demonstrations and military parades. Legend has it that Kaganovich ordered the production of a detailed model of Red Square with a removable temple and brought it to Stalin. Trying to prove to the leader that the cathedral interfered with cars and demonstrations, he unexpectedly tore off the model of the temple from the square. The surprised Stalin allegedly at that moment uttered the historical phrase: “Lazarus, put him in his place!”, so the question of demolishing the cathedral was postponed. According to the second legend, the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary owes its salvation to the famous restorer P.D. Baranovsky, who sent telegrams to Stalin calling not to destroy the temple. Legend has it that Baranovsky, who was invited to the Kremlin on this issue, knelt before the assembled members of the Central Committee, begging to preserve the iconic building, and this had an unexpected effect.
Is it true that the Cathedral now serves only as a museum?
The historical and architectural museum in the cathedral was founded in 1923. However, even then, in Soviet time, services in the cathedral continued anyway. They continued until 1929, and resumed again in 1991. Today the cathedral is in joint use of the State Historical Museum and the Russian Orthodox Church. Divine services are held in St. Basil's Cathedral weekly on Sundays, as well as on patronal holidays - August 15, the day of remembrance of St. Basil, and October 14, the day of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
One of the most dangerous injuries is damage visual system. At the same time, as a result of a blow or puncture, a person’s eye often leaks out. The consequences of injury can be very different. In case of damage to the organs of vision, an urgent reaction, first aid and immediate contact with the clinic are important. Slow action can take away vision and the eyes. Pathology often aggravates the condition neighboring organs and brain.
Why might an eye leak?
As a result of mechanical stress, the integrity of the organ often suffers. Due to damage, eye leakage is possible. The mechanism for the development of such a pathological phenomenon is caused by a violation of the integrity of the membranes of the eyeball or an increase in intraocular pressure due to injury. As a result, the iris and lens shift posteriorly and rupture. In this case, the shock wave travels to the posterior pole of the organ of vision and then returns forward, which causes damage to the ocular structures. The eye can drain for several reasons. The main factors in the development of such pathological condition are:
- blow to the temporal lobe;
- kick in the nose;
- penetration of branches into the visual organ;
- eye injury from wire;
- ingress of chips when sawing;
- chemical burns;
- damage from animal claws;
- work injuries;
- damage during sports training;
- injury due to compression;
- abscesses;
- inflammatory processes.
Childhood injuries can cause complications even in adulthood and significantly worsen the condition and impair vision.
For injuries pain syndrome may have varying degrees.
Sometimes pain when the integrity of an organ is damaged may be less noticeable. If there are cutting injuries or gouging out of the eyes, external deformations and damage to the organ are clearly visible. Most often, eye leakage is accompanied by:
- unbearable sharp pain;
- deterioration of visual function;
- swelling;
- discomfort in bright light;
- difficult to open the eye;
- bruise.
How to understand that the eye is leaking?
Leakage aqueous humor from the eye can be confused with other ophthalmic discharges:
- tears;
- pus;
- blood.
The substance released when the eye leaks is very similar to tears.
If the visual organ leaks, the liquid is as clear as tears, but has a thicker consistency. If there are patches of yellow or red in the discharge, this means that there is bleeding or an abscess opening. Any discharge is a special indication for consulting a doctor.
What to do: first aid
After an injury, immediate response is important. The more time passes when the organ of vision leaks, the less likely it is to maintain its functionality. If a sharp object hits eyeball It is recommended to stop moving the affected organ. If foreign body straight and without uneven shape, it is recommended to carefully and slowly remove it yourself.
After removing the object, the eyelids are closed and movements are recommended to be avoided. It is important to tilt your head back if you cannot take a horizontal position. But in the case of a hook-shaped object or a stick with knots, you should immediately consult an experienced doctor. If possible, apply a bandage and immediately call an ambulance or go to the clinic. During the trip, it is important to take a horizontal position. This way the flow will be slower and there will be a little more time. Refusal to seek medical attention for any damage to the visual organs can significantly worsen the condition, even if the injury immediately appears insignificant.
In case of all eye injuries, you should not rub the damaged organs with your hands.
When they say that an eye has leaked out, they can put different meanings into it.
In fact, the eye can leak due to traumatic destruction (scleral rupture, compression injury) or purulent melting under certain conditions. inflammatory diseases(endophthalmitis, panophthalmitis).
Leakage mechanism
The eyeball, due to the fact that it is 2/3 filled with vitreous, is very elastic. This helps him withstand strong impacts, whose kinetic energy will be transferred by the liquid filling deep into the skull. Unfortunately, with such an impact, the thin walls of the orbit (especially the bottom) take the blow and the contents of its cavity, that is, the eyeball, can descend into the maxillary cavity. However fat body In some cases, the eye socket allows you to protect the eye from damage from bone fragments and keep it from rupture.
If a small damaging object enters the eye, the eye first contracts, causing an increase in intraocular pressure. There is a posterior displacement of the iris and lens, as well as their rupture. Instantly the shock wave travels to the posterior pole of the eye and then returns forward. Such vibrations cause damage to internal structures. If the intraocular pressure was very strong (rupture of the sclera from the inside) or a traumatic object violated the integrity of the membranes of the eyeball, then its contents leak out. If the cornea is kept intact, you may notice its swelling and clouding. This intraocular fluid accumulates in the anterior chamber of the eye. At serious damage Here a hyphema is formed - hemorrhage.
Traumatic injury the retina leads to its ruptures, and the blood entering the vitreous saturates it, and hemophthalmos occurs.
With timely and correct medical care the hemorrhage may resolve, but the eye remains intact. However, when injuries cause optic nerve atrophy or other disorders leading to atrophy of the eyeball in humans, there is a need for surgical removal organ from the orbit. This operation (evisceration) allows you to eliminate a serious source possible infection for the whole body. The eye socket is also cleaned if the eye has leaked and cannot be restored.
Endophthalmitis caused by clostridia. Arrow points to opaque perforated cornea
With endophthalmitis, infection occurs in the internal structures of the eyeball - the membranes and vitreous. As a rule, infectious agents are introduced during penetrating trauma; if operating asepsis, perforated ulcer cornea. Active inflammatory process covers the entire eyeball large quantities pus is formed, permeating its tissues, resulting in their complete melting.
Exudate leaking outward may be incorrectly interpreted as eye leakage. However, the disease has severe consequences– traction retinal detachment and subatrophy of the eyeball. As a result, such an eye must be surgically removed to prevent the development of an abscess and sepsis of the brain. That is, people lose an eye in the same way as if it leaked.
How to proceed
In case of an eye injury, especially if it was suffered by a child, the victim must be taken to a doctor as soon as possible. Often, a bruise can mask a tear in the sclera, posing a threat of leakage of the eye in the future. In addition, one should always be wary of the development infectious process, therefore, if possible, the injured organ should be covered with a sterile napkin and wait for an ambulance in this form.
All infectious and inflammatory eye diseases, including “harmless” conjunctivitis, dacryocystitis, barley, and the like, must be treated under the supervision of a doctor in order to prevent the generalized development of infection visual organ.
Cover the eye with a sterile bandage and refer the victim to a doctor
Other cases
There are other conditions under which the eyeball can leave the orbit and still remain intact. Some people may also call this condition eye leakage.
Why this might happen.
Tumor
A growth in the orbit or along the optic nerve physically increases pressure in the orbit and pushes the eyeball outward. The danger comes from both the tumor itself and the fact that blood vessels And optic nerve in this case, they experience tension and tension, which can gradually lead to their atrophy; also, the extraocular muscles are pinched and cannot perform their function. Without the ability to lubricate it with tear fluid, the covering of the eyeball will become inflamed and feel dry.
Treatment is carried out surgically, removing the tumor. If it is malignant, the operation is aimed at cleansing the entire contents of the orbit (removal of the eye) down to the bone walls.
Physiology
Peculiarity connective tissue In some people it makes the eyeball ligaments very elastic. They are likely to have an eyeball that “falls out” when intracranial pressure, sneezing, trying to exhale with open mouth. Shallow eye sockets and overly flexible eyelids also make it easier for the eyes to come out of their sockets. Some people can control this process and “roll out” their eyes on purpose.
Some people can push their eyes out of their sockets at will.
What to do if the eye is intact, but has come out of its orbit? Look down. Push and Pull upper eyelid thumb and index finger of one hand. Use your second fingers to push the eyeball, touching only the insensitive sclera ( white part eyes), in a backward direction, while continuing to hold the eyelid. The eyeball should be back in place. Try looking up. If everything is done correctly, your eye will rotate normally in the socket under the eyelid.
In more severe cases This manipulation is performed by a doctor, and the eyeball is secured in place using special staples or a suture.
The patient receives pain relievers, anti-inflammatory corticosteroids, antibiotics, and lubricating drops or gels to moisten the cornea.
Constantine IX Monomakh commanded blind 800 Russians captured V captivity after the battle of Varna in 1043
So, after the victory in the battle of Belasitsa on July 29, 1014, when the troops of the Byzantine Emperor Vasily II inflicted a heavy defeat on the Bulgarian army, by order of the emperor, 14-15 thousand captive Bulgarians were blinded. They placed a one-eyed guide at the head of each hundred and sent them home to King Samuel. For this terrible feat, Emperor Vasily received the nickname Bulgarian Slayer.
In general, in Byzantium the use of blinding reached its apogee. They were used to punish many crimes. Thus, Manuel I Komnenos often gave orders faithful people to guard all exits from the camp at night, threatened the soldiers with blinding for desertion, but the stratiots still left the army. For seditious ideas, the 12th century poet was sentenced to execution, commuted to blinding. Mikhail Glika, although he assured the emperor that “he did not write insidious poems and fulfilled his duties.” Isaac II Angel demanded, for example, a report from the commander on the progress of the war with the Bulgarians. He answered briefly and added that the troops fighting a difficult war were poorly supplied. Isaac II ordered the daredevil to be blinded. Constantine VIII, after the uprising of the population of Naupactus against the selfish strategist, ordered the blinding of the bishop of the city, citing the punishment by the fact that the bishop had failed to keep his flock from revolting. About a hundred and fifty years later, under similar circumstances, Andronicus I Komnenos did the same thing with Bishop Lopadia.
Serious punishment (exile, blinding, execution) was usually preceded by general reproach. The criminal's hair, beard, eyebrows, even eyelashes were cut off, and he was then taken around the city and around the hippodrome on a donkey, camel or bull (face to tail). Sometimes a sack was thrown over him, a sleeveless shirt was put on him, “necklaces” of bull and sheep intestines were hung around his neck, and the same “crowns” were placed on his head. Ahead, for fun, walked the staff bearers with mocking songs and praises. The daughters and wives of the kings came out onto the balconies to watch such a spectacle: its organization was sometimes entrusted to buffoons and mimes as experienced directors of entertainment. They were blinded using a red-hot iron rod, which was used to burn through the eyelid. Gross blindness sometimes resulted in death. Soon after the blinding, the young Michael V died, as did the strong and strong warrior Romanus IV Diogenes. The arrested Konstantin was immediately blinded, and his eyes were cut out so cruelly that he died on the same day. Since the deceased emperor did not leave any male offspring, the throne was taken by his mother, Empress Irina. During fierce wars, the Byzantines carried out mass blinding of prisoners. Sometimes blinding was carried out without visible damage to the eyes, by repeatedly rotating white-hot metal in front of the open eyes - vision faded gradually. Sometimes only one eye was lost or vision was dulled - this was a special mercy. Mass punishments of state criminals along with their entire family are mentioned: the criminal himself was blinded, all women were forcibly tonsured into nuns, men, even children, were castrated.
Later in Western Europe, such punishment was repeatedly used in France, England, and Germany. During the confrontation between the Pope and the Antipope in the middle of the 12th century, Calixtus II, having taken possession of the Lateran Palace, gathered an army. He instructed one of the cardinals to besiege Gregory's residence in Sutri. Burning with impatience to quickly capture his competitor, Calixtus II himself joined the detachment and personally led the attack. After stubborn resistance, the Sutri garrison was forced to surrender. As soon as Gregory was in his hands, Calixtus the second ordered his eyes to be gouged out and castrated.
One of the French queens, having captured her husband's mistress, ordered the guards to rape the captive. After that, she personally gouged out the eyes of the unfortunate woman.
In Georgia, not far from us, in 1177 there was a conspiracy against George III, led by the Minister of War John Orbeli, who wanted to overthrow the king and elevate his nephew, Prince Demna, to the throne. The conspiracy was suppressed, Prince Demna was blinded and castrated, after which he soon died, John Orbeli was also blinded, almost all members of the Orbeli clan were executed, the women were drowned in the river.
One of the last manifestations of the monarch's anger was the case of Ludwig II of Bavaria in the 19th century. Tired of ruining the treasury by the insane spending of a half-crazed monarch, the indignant courtiers decided to secretly convene a council of the best psychiatrists in the country to declare the great “builder” insane and excommunicate him from the throne. But the spies reported, and the king arrested the conspirators, in anger ordering their eyes to be gouged out and their skins torn off - he was a hot-tempered man. True, as it turned out later, he was also easy-going, because on the day of execution he unexpectedly ordered everyone to be released. The high commission, including psychiatrists, screaming madly, ran without respite for several leagues in a row.
Click here to download a clip from the movie Evil Dead Trap , illustrating such punishment
.As early as the 19th century, blinding was practiced as a form of legal punishment among some native tribes. According to George Reilly Scott:
On the Sandwich Islands (another name for the Hawaiian Islands), criminals sentenced to death are either clubbed to death or strangled with a noose. Punishment for those crimes that are not punished death penalty, takes the form of mutilation.
For example, an ordinary member of a tribe convicted of having an intimate relationship with the chief’s wife is sentenced to have his eyes removed. This procedure is described by Arago as follows: “I myself did not have a chance to observe it, but the unfortunate cripple, with whom Gaimard and I talked in the presence of M. Rives, told us how it was done to him. Two held him by his legs, two by his arms, and one by his hair. The sixth, the executioner, hit him strong blow in each eye and almost at the same moment stabbed forefinger into the lacrimal sac and removed the eyeball. The second eye was removed in a similar way, but we managed to find a barely noticeable scar under the lower eyelid with great difficulty.”
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