Modern foreign trade operations are very diverse. Therefore, it is not possible to propose one criterion according to which an exhaustive classification of foreign trade transactions can be given. All of them should be considered from several points of view: by areas of trade; types of goods and services; degree of readiness of goods; trading methods used; organizational forms. In Fig. 2.1 presents a classification of foreign trade operations, characterizing their diversity.
Rice. 2.1. Classification of foreign trade operations according to basic trade criteria
According to the direction of trade, foreign economic operations can be divided into export, import, re-export and re-import.
Exporting or importing goods is usually the first foreign trade transaction faced by a company that has become a participant in international business. But export-import operations do not stop even when the company moves on to other foreign trade transactions. In this case, management is looking for new markets or carrying out export-import transactions in conjunction with other foreign trade operations.
The specificity of Russian exports is that the predominant items are still oil, petroleum products, and natural gas. Other significant Russian export transactions include rolled ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals and their alloys, cellulose, and lumber. Export of machinery and equipment does not exceed 1%.
Traditional import items are food, consumer and industrial goods, as well as raw materials and semi-finished products for the production of consumer goods.
By type of goods and services that serve as the subject of trade, we can distinguish:
♦ trade in commodities;
♦ trade in food products;
♦ trade in consumer goods;
♦ trade in machinery and equipment;
♦ trade in scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property;
♦ trade in production services (maintenance, engineering, consulting, etc.);
♦ trade in services for the population, including tourism.
Trade in mechanical and technical products can also be divided according to the degree of their readiness for use:
♦ finished products;
♦ products in disassembled form;
♦ complete equipment.
IN Lately Russian enterprises are increasingly focused on creating mixed engineering firms with the aim of industrial development and implementation of the results of scientific research from the Russian side and the experimental base of Western companies. This is especially important for Russian design bureaus and research institutes that are establishing the production of goods for domestic and foreign markets, using their own technical achievements, inventions and discoveries, as well as for the successful conversion of defense industries.
Due to the protectionist foreign policy of many countries, trade in individual or complete equipment is sometimes almost the only means of penetration into sales markets.
Organizational forms of trade imply a variety of conditions and opportunities for conducting international transactions, depending on the target setting of foreign economic policy and the requirements of the external environment. Among them are: barter operations; counterpurchases or buy-back operations; compensation transactions; operations on customer-supplied raw materials; repurchase of obsolete products; industrial cooperation, including production and industry cooperation, the creation of mixed production and the development of such new form production cooperation, such as “production sharing,” which involves the joint development of natural resources.
Trade methods include either direct contracts or intermediary transactions.
With the direct trading method, the exporter himself is engaged in searching for clients in the foreign market and organizing work with them. Accordingly, there is no need to pay commissions to intermediaries. The transaction does not depend on how conscientious and experienced the intermediary is. The exporter owns complete information about the market and can quickly adjust the characteristics of the product or methods of its promotion based on the situation.
Thus, complex industrial equipment is sold, large facilities are constructed, large quantities of raw materials and agricultural products are purchased on the basis of long-term agreements.
However, only large firms with special knowledge in the field of international trade can afford independent export activities. For companies just starting to export, it is more profitable to use the services of specialized intermediaries. The fact is that researching an unfamiliar market requires a lot of financial costs exporter, while intermediaries already have the necessary experience and knowledge. In addition, they are familiar with the customs of the local market and its competitive environment. Intermediaries can provide clients with Additional services that increase the chances of a product being sold (adaptation of the product to the conditions of the local market, organization of after-sales service, disaggregation of batches of goods, sale of related products, provision of loans to customers). Therefore, more than half of foreign trade is carried out with the help of intermediaries: brokers, sales agents, commission agents, consignors, distributors.
Selected species goods in international trade are sold using competitive methods on commodity exchanges, auctions, and international auctions. Currently, after the abolition of state export quotas in Russia, a competitive (tender) approach to export-import supplies is being quite actively introduced.
The above classification of foreign trade operations characterizes their diversity. The opening of the economy to the outside world and the broad liberalization of foreign economic activity are gradually forming a new model of international business in Russia.
1. What is the essence of foreign economic relations?
2. Main forms of foreign economic relations?
3. Criteria for the classification of foreign trade operations?
4. Basic trading methods?
5. Separation of types of goods and services?
6. The role of specialized intermediaries in foreign trade?
7. Organizational forms of trade?
Foreign trade activities: essence, types. Subjects of foreign trade activities. The essence and significance of foreign trade. Foreign trade operations. Economic potential of Russia's foreign trade. Directions of trade and economic cooperation in Russia.
Features of trade and economic relations between Russia and the CIS countries.Treaty on the Customs Union and Single Economic Space, main provisions. Agreement of the CIS countries “On the Customs Union”.Prospects for Russia's accession to the WTO.
Foreign trade activities: essence, types.
foreign trade activities(foreign economic activity) - a set of organizational-economic, production-economic and operational-commercial functions of export-oriented enterprises, taking into account the chosen foreign economic strategy, forms and methods of work in the foreign partner’s market.
In accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the definition of foreign economic activity is understood as foreign trade, investment and other activities, including production cooperation, in the field of international exchange of goods, information, work, services, results of intellectual activity (rights to them).
Foreign economic activity is carried out at the level of production structures (firms, organizations, enterprises, associations, etc.) with complete independence in choosing a foreign market and a foreign partner, product range and assortment items for an export-import transaction, in determining the price and value of the contract, volume and delivery times and is part of their production and commercial activities with both domestic and foreign partners.
Foreign economic activity belongs to the market sphere, is based on the criteria of entrepreneurial activity, structural connections with production and is distinguished by legal autonomy and economic, as well as legal independence from sectoral departmental supervision.
FEA is entrepreneurial activity aimed at making a profit, which includes the following areas: Foreign trade, technical and economic cooperation, scientific, technical and production cooperation.
The following types of foreign economic activity are distinguished:
foreign trade activities;
international division of labor;
production cooperation;
international investment cooperation;
currency and financial and credit operations;
relations with international organizations.
Foreign trade activities is entrepreneurship in the field international exchange goods, works, services, information and results of intellectual activity.
Prerequisites and conditions international division labor arose on a significant scale during the era of capitalist development thanks to the industrial revolution, the emergence of machine industry, and specialization of production. Demand for certain types of goods in various countries, which could not extract and produce them in sufficient quantities, stimulated the development of foreign trade in scarce goods. Trade and the benefits derived from it encouraged countries to expand the production of such goods, as a result of which labor in these countries was concentrated on the production of certain types of economic product.
Industrial cooperation as part of the foreign economic activity of enterprises and firms, it also represents one of the forms of cooperation between foreign partners in different, but structurally interconnected processes of technological division of labor. The technological process of division of labor itself means the distribution of its participants in the chain of creation and sale of products according to its main phases, from studying the needs in domestic and foreign markets to bringing it to final consumers. Industrial cooperation is typical for homogeneous spheres of production and circulation, for scientific, technical, investment and service areas, for example, for the manufacturing industry.
Coordination of partners’ actions within the framework of production cooperation is achieved by:
mutual planning of export and import-substituting products;
forecasting and joint conduct of scientific developments, providing them with the necessary equipment, devices and materials, test benches and scientific and technical information;
organizing the personnel training process.
International investment cooperation involves one of the forms of interaction with foreign partners based on combining efforts of a financial and logistical nature. The goals of such cooperation are to expand the base for the development and production of export products, their systematic updating based on competitiveness criteria and facilitating the processes of their sale on the foreign market. Such problems can be solved through organization, for example, joint production. Joint entrepreneurship is possible primarily on the basis of the exchange of technologies, services with the subsequent distribution of production programs and its implementation, as well as in the form of the formation and functioning of concessions, consortia, joint-stock companies, international non-governmental organizations, etc.
Currency and financial and credit operations as a type of foreign trade activity, enterprises and firms should be considered primarily as facilitators accompanying any foreign trade transaction in the form of financial obligations associated with ensuring payment for delivered products through specific forms of payment, as well as foreign exchange transactions committed in order to avoid exchange rate losses.
An important sector of the foreign economic complex is participation in international organizations, whether governmental or non-governmental. In modern international relations, international organizations play a significant role as a form of cooperation between states and multilateral diplomacy. An interstate organization is characterized by the following features: membership of states; presence of constituent international treaty; permanent organs; respect sovereignty, Member States. Taking these features into account, it can be stated that an international intergovernmental organization is an association of states established on the basis of an international treaty to achieve common goals, has permanent bodies and acts in the common interests of member states while respecting their sovereignty.
The main types of foreign trade activities are also:
export and import of goods, capital and labor
provision of services to foreign entities by participants in foreign trade activities economic activity, including production, freight forwarding, insurance, consulting, marketing, intermediary, brokerage, agency, consignment, management, auditing, legal, tourism, etc.
scientific, scientific-technical, scientific-production, production and other cooperation with foreign economic entities.
education and training of specialists on a commercial basis through concluding agreements with foreign economic entities
international financial transactions (transactions with securities)
creation of enterprises by foreign economic entities on the territory of the Russian Federation
joint business activities between Russian foreign economic activity participants and foreign economic entities. Activities, including the creation of enterprises of all forms of ownership and types of body-rights
activities in the Russian Federation related to the provision of licenses, patents, know-how, trademarks and other intangible property of foreign economic entities with Russian participants in foreign trade activities
organization and holding of exhibitions, auctions, conferences, seminars and other similar events carried out on a commercial basis with the participation of foreign trade entities
Concessions for foreign legal entities and individuals
operations for processing customer-supplied raw materials (tolling)
commodity exchange transactions, forms of countertrade, cooperation on a compensation basis, production sharing agreements between Russian participants in foreign economic activity and business entities
rental operations, incl. leasing between Russian and foreign economic entities
Subjects of foreign trade activities.
Subjects of foreign trade activities are individuals; legal entities and other legally capable organizations; public entities, including states; international organizations. Individuals such as citizens (citizens of the Russian Federation), Foreign citizens and stateless persons. To carry out foreign economic transactions with foreign citizens and stateless persons, it is important for Russian entrepreneurs to know whether these persons have the right to assume obligations under the transaction (be a party to the transaction), since the achievement of the economic result that entrepreneurs set for themselves when concluding an agreement depends on this. Foreign citizens and stateless persons can enter into various transactions for the purpose of PD. In some cases, the parties to foreign economic activity are entrepreneurs. For example, when concluding an agreement for the international purchase and sale of goods, the parties to the agreement must be entrepreneurs, while an insurance agreement can be concluded by a Russian insurer with foreign citizens and stateless persons, who may or may not be entrepreneurs.
The essence and significance of foreign trade
International trade - This is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies or their representatives.
International trade is a set of export-import operations of a separate country. This is trade of one country with subjects of the world economy.
International trade is an important and historically first form of international economic relations. Currently, all subjects of the world economy are participating in it.
Main factors for the development of international trade :
international division of labor, specialization of countries in the production and trade of certain goods and services;
development of commodity production and market economy;
scientific and technological revolution, which accelerated the qualitative transformation of all elements of the productive forces and shifts in the geographical and commodity structure of world flows of goods and services.
The role of international trade in the development of world economic relations:
partial resolution of the contradiction between production and consumption inherent in a market economy. However, not being fully resolved through the export-import of goods, these contradictions are transferred to the sphere of world economic relations, which is expressed in intense competition between international trade entities;
participation in international trade leads to the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies in a number of areas: specialization is enhanced, the possibility of organizing mass production is created, the degree of equipment utilization increases, the efficiency of new equipment and technology increases;
expansion of exports causes an increase in employment, which has important social consequences;
active participation in international trade creates conditions for accelerating progressive structural changes in national economies. For many developing countries (especially Asian ones), export growth has become an important basis for industrialization and increased economic growth. Expanding exports makes it possible to mobilize and more effectively use Natural resources and labor force, which ultimately contributes to increased productivity and income;
At the same time, the increase in foreign trade exchange and the growing role of exports and imports in national economies contribute to the synchronization of the economic cycle in the world economy. The interconnection and interdependence of national economies is increasing so much that a disruption in the functioning of the economy of any major participant in the world market will inevitably entail international consequences, including the spread of crisis phenomena to other countries.
Foreign trade operations
Export - export abroad of goods of national origin or largely processed in the country for the purpose of their sale.
Import - import of foreign goods for the purpose of their use in the domestic market.
Export-import transactions are the most common in international trade.
Countertrade- foreign trade transactions, during which the documents (agreements or contracts) record the firm obligations of exporters and importers to carry out a full or partially balanced exchange of goods. In the latter case, the difference in cost is covered by cash payments.
This is the most famous type of international trade, which previously consisted of the natural exchange of goods. Countertrade, which was subsequently supplanted by commodity-money relations, in modern conditions has acquired a new content and has received a certain development in international commodity exchange. It accounts for 25 to 30% of international trade volume.
The initiators of the development of countertrade are importers, who, in conditions of shortage of foreign currency, can purchase necessary goods with full or partial payment for their supplies of their goods. In conditions of aggravation of the sales problem, exporters are forced to receive from the buyer not the monetary equivalent of their value, but other goods that they either use in their own production or sell on the market. One of the features of countertrade is the expansion of the practice of counterpurchases by exporters of goods that cannot be used by them in their own production, but are intended in advance for subsequent sale on the foreign or domestic market.
UN experts identify three main types of international counter transactions:
barter transactions;
commercial compensation transactions;
industrial compensation transactions.
An industrial offset transaction is a transaction in which one party supplies (often also agreeing on the necessary financing) to a second party goods, services and/or technology that the latter uses to create new production capacity. These supplies are then offset by supplies of goods produced in the plants thus established (or sometimes by supplies of similar goods produced by third parties in the country). In a trade compensation transaction, as a rule, there is no such relationship between the mutual specific actions of both parties.
Experts from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) divide all international counter transactions into two categories:
trade compensation;
industrial compensation.
Under trade compensation refers to a single transaction of a small or moderate amount, including the exchange of extremely dissimilar goods that are usually not organically related to each other.
Under industrial compensation refers to those transactions that involve the sale of related goods for a larger amount, usually corresponding to the cost of complete industrial equipment or finished plants.
commodity exchange and compensation transactions on a non-currency basis;
compensation transactions on a commercial basis;
compensation transactions based on industrial cooperation agreements.
Types of international counter transactions
1. Commodity exchange and compensation transactions on a non-currency basis
2. Compensation transactions on a commercial basis
3. Compensation transactions based on industrial cooperation agreements
These three main types of transactions are very diverse in terms of their goals and nature, timing of execution, settlement mechanism, and implementation procedure.
Transactions based on natural exchange - barter. Barter transactions are the most traditional type of countertrade, representing a non-currency but valued exchange of goods. Valuation of goods is carried out to ensure equivalence of exchange. These transactions are characterized by the presence of a contract, which fixes the natural volumes of goods exchanged, and the simultaneous movement of commodity flows. The quantity of goods is not affected by changes in price proportions on the world market. Pure barter is the least common type of countertrade.
Commercial transactions involving the participation of the seller in the sale of goods. This is the most common operations group, which has two varieties:
direct purchase of goods for internal use or for resale to a third party;
assistance to the exporter in finding a buyer for the importer's goods.
The fundamental difference between this type of transaction and barter is that it uses money as a measure of value and a means of payment. Such transactions can be formalized legally either by one export contract specifying the terms of countertrade, or by two contracts for primary export and counterexport. In the latter case, the first export contract contains the exporter's obligation to purchase goods from the importer in an amount equal to a certain percentage of the original supply.
There are many types of transactions in this group, for example: compensation transactions. The seller agrees to be paid in part or in whole by delivery of any goods of the buyer. As a rule, this is formalized in one contract. Such transactions resemble barter, but have some significant differences. First, each partner invoices their supplies in cash. Secondly, the exporter can entrust the fulfillment of its counter-import obligations to a third party. With this form of transaction, you can receive revenue at the same time;
counter purchases (counter deliveries). The exporter undertakes to purchase or arrange for the purchase by a third party of the importer's goods in an amount equal to a certain, pre-agreed percentage of its own supplies. These transactions are formalized by two contracts, and sometimes specific goods are not specified, but the terms and amount of the purchase are fixed. Payments under the contract are made simultaneously;
advance purchases. In this case, the initial and counter deliveries seem to change places, that is, the party interested in selling its goods to a specific buyer first purchases any goods or services from him;
offset agreement. The exporter agrees to purchase goods in the importer's country for an amount that is a certain proportion of the amount of the export supply, and this share most often exceeds 100%. Deals of this kind are typically associated with expensive weapons and military equipment procurement programs;
switch type transactions. In this case, the exporter transfers its counter-delivery obligations to a third party, usually a specialized trading company. Such operations are used in combination with any other forms other than barter;
repurchase of obsolete products, i.e., offsetting the residual value of purchased goods at the price of new ones. This form of trade is one of the most effective ways to increase sales in conditions of fierce competition in sales markets, and is most widely used in the sale of passenger cars, agricultural machinery, electronic computers, etc. Thus, in industrialized countries, trading Representatives of almost all automobile companies, when a client purchases a new car, deduct the price of the old one from its cost. There are approximately the same tables for all companies estimating the cost of old cars depending on the year of manufacture, mileage and technical condition. In Western Europe in the late 80s. more than 70% of new passenger cars were sold when obsolete models were bought back:
Counter deliveries as component industrial cooperation, For example compensatory supplies(buy-back). The exporter supplies equipment on credit terms, and payment of the provided loans must be made after receiving proceeds from counter deliveries of products. Under such agreements, machinery, equipment, materials and some other types of goods for the construction of industrial facilities are imported on credit terms. Subsequently, foreign exchange earnings from the export of part of the products of these enterprises serve as a source of loan repayment.
This group may also include:
operations with customer-supplied raw materials, i.e. processing of foreign raw materials with payments for work using raw materials or processed products. As a result of the uneven development of productive forces, different countries have asymmetrical capacities for the extraction and processing of raw materials, which will create preconditions for concluding international contracts under which one of the parties undertakes to export raw materials and import processed products or finished products, the other is to process raw materials, called tolling, using our own means. Payment for the services of processing companies under such agreements is carried out by supplying additional quantities of customer-provided raw materials.
Economic potential of Russia's foreign trade
The uniqueness of Russia's potential
There are many countries in the world, the assessment of which often depends on subjective factors and may change over time. This provision is not applicable to the potential of Russia, the size, territory, diversity of climatic zones and landscapes, as well as population throughout most of the twentieth century. consistently received the highest ratings from almost all world experts
Based on a population with European traditions, Russia is a unique Eurasian state, occupying a significant part of the territory of both Europe and Asia. Russia's unique location gives the country the potential to play an active role in these two parts of the world. From a geographical point of view, quite economically profitable air and land routes connecting Europe, Central and Southeast Asia can pass through the territory of Russia.
At the same time, the enormous territorial extent of Russia does not allow an unambiguous approach to assessing its geographic potential. On the one hand, geographic potential makes it possible to powerfully develop the domestic market and national economy of the country, relying exclusively on the Russian regions’ own capabilities and resources. On the other hand, even Russia’s widespread involvement in global transport inevitably raises the question of bringing transport infrastructure up to world standards, which is difficult to achieve without the country’s overall socio-economic progress, which will help reduce the cost of transport services and increase the degree of their economic and environmental safety and reliability of operation.
An analysis of Russia’s place in global agricultural and industrial production suggests that even now the possibility of gradually transforming the country into an agricultural, raw materials and fuel and energy appendage of the industrialized countries of the West is by no means removed from the agenda: 1st place - natural gas; 2nd place - brown coal, potatoes, milk; 3rd place - oil, sulfuric acid (in monohydrate); 4th place - electricity, cast iron, steel, iron ore, removal of industrial wood, cotton fabrics, grain and leguminous crops, sugar beets; 5th place - finished rolled ferrous metals, lumber, mineral fertilizers; 6th place - coal, cellulose, meat (in slaughter weight), animal oil; 8th place - hosiery, fish catch; 11th place - cars, cement; 12th place - woolen fabrics, shoes; 14th place - paper and cardboard, granulated sugar (from domestic raw materials), vegetable oil.
The core of Russia's economic potential is its people. In terms of population, Russia ranks 9th in the world. The level of education and professional training of Russian citizens is such that they are capable, as recognized by foreign partners, of the most different countries, solve any technical and economic problems, adapt to various conditions of production and commercial activity. The higher education system in the country continues to prepare reliable and promising personnel in modern trends development of human society in line with global trends. One of the proofs of the high professional level of Russian specialists in the field of natural sciences is the high demand for them in almost all developed countries. In recent years, more and more Russian citizens with education and work experience in the field of management, marketing, and finance have been invited to work for companies in different countries operating in the Russian markets or with Russian partners.
At the same time, the country has not yet found a mechanism for the most efficient use of human resources. In general, the problem of the efficiency of their use sharply worsened in the 90s, as Russia began to lose many billions of dollars on the “drain of human capital” from the country, i.e. it faced a problem that had previously been considered unique to developing countries. A generally favorable background for solving this problem can be the establishment in the country of an appropriate social climate, characteristic of societies with developed economies.
Rich natural energy potential provides Russia with a very advantageous position. It remains the only major world power that fully meets its energy needs from its own resources. In terms of mineral fuel reserves per capita, Russia is ahead of all large industrialized countries. In these conditions, trade in energy resources and mineral raw materials is still the main real profile of the country’s specialization in the international division of labor, and this can be assessed not so much as a weakness, but as an important temporary strategic advantage from national and global points of view.
The role of the fuel and energy complex (FEC) in the development of the world economy is not decreasing, but increasing. The modern economy, despite the intensive introduction of energy-saving technologies, continues to steadily increase the scale of public and individual energy needs. According to experts, the volume of world production and consumption of primary energy carriers in early XXI V. will exceed 10 billion conventional tons. At the same time, 75% of consumption will occur in developed countries, where only one sixth of the world's population lives.
Developed countries are playing an increasingly significant role in Russian foreign trade. Although Russia is traditionally “tied” to the economies of the CIS countries, its foreign trade turned out to be oriented towards the EU countries, North America and, in general, states with developed market economies. This orientation is largely explained by the content side of export-import operations. The fact is that the predominant items of Russian exports are still energy resources and unprocessed metal products.
The role of the CIS countries remains geographically important, but is not economically stable. Meanwhile, from the point of view of a strategic perspective, maintaining its closest neighbors as the most important partners cannot but become an important stabilizing factor both for Russia and for other CIS countries.
One of the most important conditions for the development of a national market economy is a stable financial system of the country. Any failures in the financial system immediately affect the entire economy. The degree of openness of the national economy and the level of its involvement in world economic relations can be easily traced primarily through the financial system. Therefore, the influence of certain events in the world economy on internal economic processes also occurs directly through the financial system. In a short period of time in Russia, simultaneously with the process of privatization of state property, a banking system was created on the basis of joint-stock commercial banks headed by the Bank Russian Federation. Banks and other financial institutions have become active participants in the development of a market economy in Russia. Gradually, a stock market emerged. Shares of Russian companies began to be traded not only on Russian, but also on foreign stock exchanges. The latter became possible, in particular, due to the fact that the foreign exchange market started working and the Russian ruble was freely convertible throughout the country and the CIS. Russia entered the global capital market, and foreign investors began to actively purchase securities of Russian companies and banks. A significant share in the stock market was occupied by various government securities, which were especially popular among both domestic and foreign market participants, since they were characterized by high profitability and the lowest risk.
Preface
Since the liberalization of foreign economic activity (FEA), issues of organization and management of foreign trade operations have been given increased attention, both on a theoretical and practical level. Very dynamically developing the legislative framework in this area of economic activity in connection with global trends in the unification of the methodological basis of international trade, strengthening of integration processes, and the emergence of new forms and methods of trade.
In the context of the accelerating dynamics of international trade turnover, the complication and expansion of the range of products presented on the world market, the reduction life cycle goods and, consequently, increased competition for Russian entrepreneurs, issues related to gaining and maintaining stable and reliable positions in the global market in the long term are of particular relevance.
Issues of legal protection of domestic exporters and importers have become relevant in connection with the procedure for Russia’s accession to the World Trade Organization, an institution that regulates economic relations between countries in the field of international trade, in accordance with the principles of maximum openness national markets. However, Russian businessmen must be able to independently protect their own interests, in which they will be helped by knowledge of the “rules of the game” on the world market, its features and traditions.
Regular collection and analysis of information on world market conditions and especially on prices and price parameters of markets for specific goods and services can not only increase the efficiency of foreign trade transactions and develop immunity to sharp market fluctuations, but also avoid accusations of violating market principles of the functioning of the world economy.
To meet the needs of enterprises of various forms of ownership for relevant specialists, universities and colleges of the Russian Federation are studying disciplines devoted to trade and economic activities with foreign counterparties.
The textbook “Foreign Economic Activity” fully complies with the State Educational Standard for various directions and specialties. It is intended for training students, retraining managers and specialists in various sectors of the Russian economy, and can also be used to independently improve the level of commercial knowledge. The manual will allow specialists of commercial services to competently and successfully prepare for trading operations on the foreign market, and students will be able to pass tests and exams in the relevant course.
Chapter 1
Organization of foreign economic activity
1.1 Foreign trade and foreign economic activity: concept, features, development trends
Foreign economic relations– these are international economic, trade, political relations, including the exchange of goods, various shapes economic assistance, scientific and technical cooperation, specialization, production cooperation, provision of services and joint entrepreneurship. The main forms of foreign economic relations include the following.
1. Trade. Using this form, the purchase and sale of consumer goods is carried out: clothing, shoes, perfumes, haberdashery, cultural goods, as well as food products and raw materials. There is also a trade exchange of products for industrial consumption: components, parts, spare parts, rental, bearings, assemblies, etc. It is possible to purchase goods and equipment for public consumption: urban transport, equipment for hospitals, clinics, resorts, medicines, devices and security equipment environment. The purchase and sale of intellectual work products is carried out: licenses, know-how, engineering products.
2. Joint entrepreneurship. This form foreign economic relations can be implemented in the industrial sphere at plants, factories, enterprises; V agriculture, science, education, medicine, transport, culture, art, credit and financial sphere.
3. Provision of services. Intermediary, banking, exchange services, insurance, tourism, and international cargo transportation are widely used in international business. The volume of services provided by computer networks available in developed countries peace.
4. Cooperation, assistance. Scientific, technical, and economic cooperation are becoming increasingly widespread in foreign economic relations. Scientific and cultural exchanges are intensifying, and the number of sporting events is growing.
Foreign trade on modern stage- This is the most intensively developing form of international economic relations.
The interest of almost all countries in expanding their foreign trade is associated primarily with the need to sell national products on foreign markets, the need to obtain certain goods from outside and, finally, the desire to extract high profits through the international division of labor, which allows for savings in social labor in the process of rational production and sharing its results between different countries.
The priority in foreign trade should be considered to be the development of exports, since the purchase of imported goods can be carried out either in the presence of foreign currency or a competitive product.
To get the most economic effect It is necessary to export high-tech products that allow obtaining maximum foreign exchange earnings per unit of labor input, and those goods that have the highest labor input per unit of investment should be imported.
The difference between the concepts of “foreign economic relations” and “foreign economic activity” is as follows. Foreign economic relations relate to the level of macroeconomic (interstate) regulation, and foreign economic activity - to the micro level, i.e., to the level of firms and enterprises.
The functions of Russia's foreign economic relations are currently aimed at ensuring export supplies for federal needs and interstate economic (including currency, credit, trade) agreements of the Russian Federation. Foreign economic relations are implemented “from top to bottom”: the volumes and list of goods and services are determined at the government level. They are implemented through the government procurement system (through organizations designated as government customers) and through limits with centralized provision of material and currency resources.
Foreign economic activity represents a set of production, economic, organizational, economic and commercial functions of firms and enterprises.
According to the Law “On government regulation foreign trade activity”, this activity is understood as entrepreneurship in the field of international exchange of goods, work, services, information, and results of intellectual activity. The concept of foreign economic relations is much broader.
1.2. Classification of foreign trade operations
Modern foreign trade operations are very diverse. Therefore, it is not possible to propose one criterion according to which an exhaustive classification of foreign trade transactions can be given. All of them should be considered from several points of view: by areas of trade; types of goods and services; degree of readiness of goods; trading methods used; organizational forms of trade. In Fig. 1.1 presents foreign trade operations according to the listed classification criteria.
According to the direction of trade, foreign economic operations can be divided into export, import, re-export and re-import.
Exporting or importing goods is usually the first foreign economic transaction faced by an enterprise that has become a participant in international business. But export-import operations do not stop even when the company moves on to other foreign trade transactions. In this case, export-import operations are looking for new markets or are carried out in conjunction with other foreign trade operations.
Rice. 1.1. Classification of foreign trade operations
The specificity of Russian exports is that the predominant items are still oil, petroleum products, and natural gas. Other significant Russian exports are rolled ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals and their alloys, cellulose, and lumber. Export of machinery and equipment does not exceed 1%.
Traditional import items are food, consumer and industrial goods, as well as raw materials and semi-finished products for the production of consumer goods.
By type of goods and services that serve as the subject of trade, we can distinguish: trade in commodities; trade in food products; trade in consumer goods; trade in machinery and equipment; trade in scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property; trade in industrial services (maintenance, engineering, consulting, etc.); trade in services for the population, including tourism.
Trade in mechanical and technical products, in addition, can be divided according to the degree of their readiness for use: finished products, disassembled products, complete equipment.
Organizational forms of trade require a variety of conditions and opportunities for conducting international transactions, depending on the target setting of foreign economic policy and the requirements of the external environment. Among them are: barter operations; counterpurchases or buy-back operations; compensation transactions; operations on customer-supplied raw materials; repurchase of obsolete products; industrial cooperation, including production and industry cooperation; the creation of mixed production and the development of such a new form of production cooperation as “production sharing”, which involves the joint development of natural resources.
Trade methods include either direct contracts or intermediary transactions.
With the direct trading method, the exporter himself is engaged in searching for clients in the foreign market and organizing work with them. Accordingly, there is no need to pay commissions to intermediaries. The transaction does not depend on how conscientious and experienced the intermediary is. The exporter has complete information about the market and can quickly adjust the characteristics of the product or methods of its promotion depending on the situation.
In this way, complex industrial equipment is sold, large facilities are built, and large quantities of raw materials and agricultural products are purchased on the basis of long-term agreements.
However, only large firms with special knowledge in the field of international trade can afford independent export activities. For companies just starting export activities, it is more profitable to use the services of specialized intermediaries.
The problem is that researching an unfamiliar market requires large financial outlays for the exporter. While intermediaries already have the necessary experience and knowledge. In addition, they are familiar with the customs of the local market and its competitive environment. In addition, intermediaries can provide customers with additional services that increase the chances of a product being sold (adjusting the product to local market conditions, organizing after-sales service, disaggregating batches of goods, selling related products, providing loans to customers). Therefore, more than half of foreign trade is carried out with the help of intermediaries: brokers, sales agents, commission agents, consignors, distributors.
Certain types of goods in international trade are sold using competitive trading methods on commodity exchanges, auctions, and international auctions.
Currently, after the abolition of state export quotas in Russia, a competitive (tender) approach to export-import supplies is being quite actively introduced.
1.3. Export-import operations: concepts
Export-import operations are understood as commercial activities related to the purchase and sale of commercial products (services) and the import and export of these products (services) abroad/from abroad.
In international trade practice, the seller is called exporter, and the buyer is importer. The parties to any contract in international trade practice are called counterparties.
Export is a combination of many commercial operations for the sale and export of goods abroad for their transfer into ownership of a foreign counterparty. Export is also the provision of tourist, excursion and other services (total tourism product) to foreign tourists and foreign travel agencies. Export is the export of capital in the form of loans and investments in foreign firms.
When carrying out an export operation, it does not matter to the exporter how the goods will be used by the importer: the latter can process the goods, sell them on the domestic market, or resell them to third countries. In any case, for the seller this will be an export operation.
To carry out an export operation, one defining condition is necessary - to have a product that will be in demand in the foreign market.
Import– a set of many commercial transactions for the purchase and import of foreign goods for their subsequent sale in the domestic market of one’s country. At the same time, goods imported into the country can be either finished products intended for sale, or raw materials, semi-finished products subject to processing, capital construction projects in the form of investment capital, licenses, know-how, etc.
An indispensable condition for carrying out an import operation is the solvency of the importer.
Re-export– export abroad of previously imported goods that have not undergone any processing in the re-exporting country (this is a prerequisite for any re-export operation). However, according to the latest regulations The Russian Federation is allowed to carry out minor operations (such as labeling, packaging, packaging) in order, for example, to simplify the transportation of goods through the re-export zone. In this case, a mandatory condition is that the cost of additional processing operations should not exceed half of the export contract price. If this condition is violated, the goods are converted from re-export to export with all the ensuing consequences for payment of the necessary export taxes and customs duties.
The subject of re-export is most often goods sold at international auctions and commodity exchanges.
Re-export can be carried out without importing goods into your country. Such operations essentially do not relate to the export or import of a given country, although they are taken into account by customs statistics. They are committed by trading firms in order to make a profit due to the difference in prices for the same product in different markets. A significant part of re-export operations is carried out in the territory of the so-called free zones. Goods imported into the territory of these zones are not subject to customs duties and are exempt during their stay there and when imported for re-export from all duties, fees and taxes on import, circulation, consumption and production.
In warehouses located in the free zone, goods are stored until they are moved inland across the customs border or until they are re-exported. In the first case, the appropriate customs duty is paid, in the second, the goods are exported without observing any customs formalities.
Such free zones exist in almost all major ports of coastal states. Landlocked states enjoy free zones at nearby ports based on international agreements.
Re-import– import from abroad of previously exported goods that have not been processed there. These may be goods not sold at auction, exhibition, returned from a consignment warehouse, rejected by the buyer, and others intended for sale.
Essentially, re-imported goods cannot be called foreign trade transactions, since they do not pursue a commercial purpose and no one specially prepares or carries them out. At their core, these are failed export operations. But customs statistics take them into account separately - as re-import operations.
When preparing customs documents under the re-import regime, it is mandatory that the goods have been in the importer’s country for no more than 10 years and have not been subjected to any processing (with the exception, again, of repackaging, packaging, labeling, etc.).
1.4. Commodity exchange operations on the world market
Commodity exchange as a form of international trade, it is a permanent market for goods with qualitative homogeneity and interchangeability, which allows trading without presentation and inspection of goods using samples and in accordance with established standards. Such goods include bulk raw materials and food products: copper, tin, lead, zinc, aluminum, nickel, other non-ferrous and rare earth metals; wheat, rye, other grains and legumes; rubber, cotton, jute, wool, yarn, silk, olive and vegetable oil, sugar, coffee, cocoa, textile raw materials, oil and petroleum products.
The most important exchanges are concentrated in the largest trading centers - Amsterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg, Yokohama, Winnipeg, London, New York, Paris, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Chicago, etc.
Exchange operations are carried out for various purposes: buying and selling real goods, conducting speculative (futures) transactions, insuring (hedging) transactions against possible change prices
Much earlier than commodity and especially stock exchanges appeared auctions. Currently, auctions play an important role in the trade of tea (70% of sales on the world market), fur raw materials (80%), washed and unwashed wool (55%), as well as horses, bristles, fish, tobacco, vegetables, fruits, flowers, wine, coffee and other goods of plant and animal origin, perishable goods.
Auctions are commercial organizations that have specialized equipment, premises and highly qualified personnel for trade. These are mainly mutual companies or large trading companies that have monopolized one or another type of product. They buy goods at their own expense from manufacturers and suppliers, dictating purchase prices, and also accept goods for resale from independent manufacturers on commission terms.
Large auctions have own production for the processing of raw materials (for example, for the processing of fur-bearing animal skins purchased from leather raw material suppliers).
There are two main methods of bidding at an auction: with increasing prices and with decreasing prices.
In general, auction trading is a convenient form of trade for merchants, allowing them to reduce distribution costs and ensuring sales at current market prices that are close to optimal for a given type of product.
Countertrade- the oldest type of international trade, which previously consisted of the natural exchange of goods. In modern conditions, it has acquired new content and received a certain development in international commodity exchange.
Countertrade refers to such foreign trade operations, during which a single contract fixes firm obligations of counterparties to carry out a full or partially balanced exchange of goods. In the second case, the difference in cost is covered by cash payments.
Thus, the essence of countertrade is to fully or partially pay for imports with counterexports. One of the features of countertrade is the expansion of the practice of counterpurchase by exporters of those goods that are not used for their own country, but are intended in advance for sale in other countries. The practice of entrusting the sale of counter goods purchased by exporters to special trading companies has become widespread.
An obligatory link in countertrade is banks that open special “escrow” accounts for counterparties, into which payments from buyers for imported goods are credited, and exporters receive from these accounts the funds due to them only after fulfilling all their counter obligations. But since often the deadlines for fulfilling mutual obligations do not coincide, counterparties are forced to turn to banks for loans. With countertrade, banks are more willing to finance export operations, considering counterobligations as guarantees for the repayment of loans by importers.
In its economic essence, countertrade includes two stages of exchange: at the first stage - an export operation, at the second - a counter-import operation. Then there may be a stage of selling goods on the domestic market or an additional export operation. The multi-operational nature of countertrade leads to a decrease in the efficiency of exports due to the need for additional financing of the process of circulation of goods - through intermediaries. In addition, due to the lengthening of the export operation cycle over time, the time frame for the turnover of funds increases, which leads to an increase in circulation costs. Nevertheless, countertrade has been developing rapidly in recent years.
The most traditional type of countertrade is barter transactions. This is a non-currency, but valued, balanced exchange of goods. A guarantee of equivalence can be world prices calculated on the basis of evidence-based competitive materials.
The use of contract prices may satisfy the self-supporting interests of individual enterprises, but does not meet the national interests.
A barter contract is two sales contracts. The terms of both contracts must be completely identical (in terms of penalties, insurance conditions, force majeure conditions, etc.). In barter transactions, mutual claims are resolved by additional deliveries or retention of goods. For example, if the main exporter is late with delivery, then he must supply an additional quantity of goods for the amount of the fine, but the contract must indicate what goods will be used for the additional supply, since the goods are different in both cost and scarcity.
Banks participate in barter transactions, but they play the role of simple creditors for the period from delivery to sale of the counter goods.
The barter contract is one-time in nature. Once on the domestic market of the counterparty country, the barter product affects the competitiveness of an adequate local product. This phenomenon in international practice is called the crowding out effect of domestic sales. In this regard, the organization and implementation of barter contracts in many countries are coordinated or controlled by the state.
The practice of international barter transactions in the Russian Federation has undergone significant changes in recent years, acquired a civilized character, and ceased to be a channel for illegal currency transfers.
Since November 1, 1996, the Russian Federation has introduced a procedure for drawing up and state registration of a barter transaction passport, which provides for the responsibility of the Russian side for the timely import of goods in an amount equivalent to the amount of exported goods, or for the crediting of foreign currency proceeds from the amount of exported goods to the accounts of authorized banks. At the same time, the registration of the transaction passport and the implementation of customs procedures are accompanied by control of the volume of supplies and the validity of the choice of prices, taking into account the price level of the world market.
Another type of commodity exchange transaction is counter purchases.
Depending on the volume of obligations, three counterpurchase options are possible.
The first option assumes that the counterpurchase obligation contains a sales contract. It stipulates that the importer will pay the full cost of the goods against documents confirming delivery, and the exporter undertakes to purchase counter goods for the full amount of the export contract no later than the established deadline.
In this option, the parties enter into a main and additional contract, exchanging the roles of seller and buyer.
The second option for counter-purchases involves signing a main contract, according to which the importer pays part of the amount in cash (for example, 70%), and the rest (30%) in counter-supplies of goods. An additional contract is concluded for the amount of counter deliveries, reflecting the main obligations of the importer to conclude the supply of counter goods of an agreed range, a certain quality and price level. In case of failure to fulfill counter-obligations under the additional contract, the importer of the main contract is obliged to pay the exporter the entire remaining amount (in our example - 30%) in money.
The third option for counter-purchasing goods involves concluding a main contract, under which the importer pays approximately half of the cost of the goods supplied in cash, and the remaining half by counter-delivery of goods. But he makes a counter-delivery in advance, in advance, that is, before the main delivery. Such counter purchases are called advance or preliminary purchases. They are used, for example, in the mechanical engineering industries and enable the exporter to first obtain materials and components, and then manufacture goods and carry out export deliveries. The contracts for the main supply and for the preliminary delivery are interconnected in such a way that the end of the fulfillment of obligations for the counter advance delivery of goods is the beginning of the fulfillment of obligations for the main delivery.
In most cases, exporters accept counter-obligations for purchases under pressure from importers, but the counter-products are not purchased for the full amount of exports. Usually, after agreeing on the price of the goods, the importer sets as a mandatory condition of the contract the purchase by the exporter of goods in his country for a certain amount (as a percentage of the transaction) and insists on including this condition in the contract. It also includes penalties for failure to comply with this condition (in the amount of 20 to 50% of the amount of unfulfilled obligations). For the exporter, a regular commercial contract is much more profitable than a counterpurchase. However, under the pressure of increasing competition and interest in selling its own products, the exporter agrees to a counterpurchase, and then the main subject of negotiations becomes determining the volume of such purchases. The importer prepares very carefully for such negotiations, conducts marketing research, studies the main competitors, their prices and tries to predict what concession the exporter may make in terms of countertrade volume.
Having agreed on the volume of counter purchases, counterparties begin negotiations on the structure of counter goods.
Operations with customer-supplied raw materials in international practice they are called tolling, they have signs of countertrade, are balanced, non-currency and pre-priced.
Under concluded contracts, one of the parties exports raw materials and imports processed products or finished products, the other processes these raw materials (called tolling) with its own means. Exporters of raw materials provide additional supplies for processing.
As in countertrade, the mutual obligations of the parties are formalized in one contract. The cost of raw materials, processing and finished products is subject to assessment.
According to existing legislation, customer-supplied raw materials can be imported into the territory of Russia under the customs regimes of “processing on customs territory” or “processing under customs control.” These regimes mean that a product can be imported into a country without being subject to customs duties, taxes or non-tariff regulations. To import each batch of goods, you must obtain a license from the customs authority. The license must indicate the processing period (it should not exceed two years) and the quantity of the finished product that must be exported after processing.
A peculiarity of the fulfillment of contractual obligations under tolling is that the payment of penalties and compensation for losses are provided mainly in goods rather than in monetary form. If the supplier of raw materials is guilty of late delivery or supply of raw materials of inadequate quality, then, at the request of the processor, he is obliged to supply an additional amount of raw materials, the cost of which will cover the amount of fines or compensation for losses.
Transactions with customer-supplied raw materials have recently become important for Russia, since this form of trade for Russian enterprises is often a salvation from bankruptcy, ensures the utilization of jobs and the functioning of the enterprise. At the same time, a strong focus on the tolling scheme harms the domestic market and greatly affects the development prospects of a given enterprise, leading to degradation organizational structures enterprises.
Purchase of used equipment is an effective commercial technique for conducting counter transactions, since for the exporter it is an opportunity to sell more advanced, more expensive products, and for the importer it is an opportunity not only to get rid of obsolete equipment, but also to sell it at its residual value, i.e. take it into account in the cost of new purchased equipment.
The cost of purchased equipment is included in the payment for a new one and, depending on the condition, model, year of manufacture and other conditions, is approximately 10–20% of the cost of a new one.
This commercial technique is most widely used in the sale of cars and trucks, computer and copy equipment, marine vessels, agricultural machinery, and standard metalworking and woodworking equipment. Russian entrepreneurs began to use this method of trading on the domestic market for cars and computer equipment.
The main feature of the buyout operation and the difficulty in its implementation is that the exporter needs to carry out renovation of the purchased equipment, including production operations for diagnostics, replacement of wear parts, and repainting. Only after this the exporter can again sell the purchased equipment by performing a re-sale operation. Of course, the re-sale of updated equipment is designed for a buyer with lower consumer requirements, but it also brings profit to the exporter. In this case, the exporter usually resorts to the help of intermediaries, concluding agreements with them on the terms of commission, distribution, etc.
Foreign trade activities- this is the activity of carrying out transactions in the field of foreign trade in goods, services, intellectual property and information.
Foreign trade in goods- is the import and (or) export of goods. Its object is a commodity, that is, movable property, as well as aircraft, sea vessels, inland navigation and mixed (river-sea) navigation vessels and space objects classified as real estate, as well as electrical energy and other types of energy. Foreign trade in goods can be carried out in the form of exports and imports. Export of goods is the removal of goods from the customs territory of the country without the obligation to re-import, and import of goods is the import of goods into the customs territory of the country without the obligation to re-export.
Foreign trade in services- provision of services (performance of work), including production, distribution, marketing, delivery of services (work). The supply of goods in foreign trade is carried out in the only way - by moving it across the border. Unlike goods, services are supplied in one of the following ways or a combination of them:
- cross-border supply of services;
- movement of consumers to the exporting country;
- establishing a commercial presence in the country consuming the service;
- temporary movement of individuals to another country for the purpose of providing a service.
Russian legislation distinguishes the following methods of foreign trade in services:
- from the territory of the Russian Federation to the territory of a foreign state;
- from the territory of a foreign state to the territory of the Russian Federation;
- on the territory of the Russian Federation to a foreign customer of services;
- on the territory of a foreign state to a Russian customer of services;
- by a Russian service provider who does not have a commercial presence in the territory of a foreign state, through the presence of him or persons authorized to act on his behalf in the territory of a foreign state;
- by a foreign service provider who does not have a commercial presence on the territory of the Russian Federation, through the presence of him or foreign persons authorized to act on his behalf on the territory of the Russian Federation;
- by a Russian service provider through a commercial presence on the territory of a foreign state;
- by a foreign provider of services through a commercial presence on the territory of the Russian Federation.
Foreign trade in intellectual property- this is the transfer of exclusive rights to objects of intellectual property or the granting of the right to use objects of intellectual property by a Russian person to a foreign person or by a foreign person to a Russian person.
Foreign trade in information carried out in the following forms:
- in the form of foreign trade in goods, if the information is an integral part of these goods;
- in the form of foreign trade in intellectual property, if the transfer of information is carried out as a transfer of rights to intellectual property;
- in the form of foreign trade in services in other cases.
Russia's foreign trade provides employment for a significant part of the country's working population, guarantees the stability of the ruble, and is important force, which forms the growing state budget of the country, and largely ensures the sustainable development of the economy of the Russian Federation. Approximately 40% of the country's GDP is generated in export operations.
The agreement for the purchase and sale of goods is drawn up foreign trade agreement. This is a commercial document confirming the completion of a transaction, it is drawn up in accordance with the law and business customs and, as a rule, includes the following sections:
- preamble
- subject of contract
- product delivery time
- price and total cost of goods
- conditions of payment
- quantity and quality of goods
- packaging and labeling
- delivery and acceptance of goods in terms of quantity and quality
- liability for violation of contract terms, sanctions
- grounds for exemption from liability (force majeure)
- insurance
- arbitration
- other conditions
- details of the parties.
Documentary support of a foreign trade transaction includes customs, transport and commercial documents. Customs documents- these are documents compiled exclusively for customs purposes. These include the customs declaration. This is a document in which the information required for submission to the customs authority is indicated in the prescribed form. Customs brokers provide assistance in processing customs documents to enterprises engaged in export activities. Customs broker (representative) is an intermediary who carries out customs operations on behalf and on behalf of the enterprise. The rights, duties and responsibilities of a customs broker on the territory of the Russian Federation are defined in the Customs Code of the Russian Federation.
To the number transport (transportation) documents include a bill of lading, invoice or other documents confirming the existence and content of the contract for the carriage of goods and accompanying goods and vehicles during international transport. Commercial documents- this is an invoice (invoice), shipping and packing lists and other documents that are used in accordance with international treaties, legislation or business customs when carrying out foreign trade activities and which, by virtue of the law, agreement of the parties or business customs, are used to confirm the completion of transactions related to the movement of goods across the customs border.
II. Basic forms and methods of foreign trade by foreign economic entities.
III. Regulation of foreign trade operations.
I. Contents and indicators of foreign trade
Foreign trade (FT) is the main direction of economic activity of foreign economic activity entities. Foreign trade operations account for 80% of all operations that include foreign trade activities of global economic entities. This means that in foreign trade, first of all, the main content of the economic activities of foreign economic activity subjects is revealed.
Foreign trade is the relationship between foreign economic activity entities regarding the purchase and sale of goods, capital, labor and services. The specific content of foreign trade finds its manifestation in the activities of various entities of the world economy.
Based on the criteria of entities carrying out foreign trade operations, the following can be distinguished:
1. Foreign trade of a country is the totality of export-import operations of an individual country.
2. Foreign trade of individual foreign economic activity entities is a set of export-import operations carried out by each of them separately.
Foreign trade by foreign economic activity is characterized by the following indicators: 1. According to the criterion of the volume of foreign trade of foreign economic activity subjects, the following are distinguished:
1.1. Export of foreign economic activity subjects is the sale of goods to foreign foreign economic activity subjects and their movement across the customs border of the country - the location of the foreign economic activity subject (exporter).
1.2. Re-export of foreign economic activity subjects is the sale to foreign foreign economic activity subjects and export outside the country of goods that were previously imported into its territory.
1.3. Import of foreign economic activity subjects is the purchase of goods from foreign foreign economic activity subjects and their introduction into the country, including the purchase of goods intended for personal consumption by national organizations and departments located abroad.
1.4. Re-import of foreign economic activity entities is the import of goods that were previously exported from the country and were not subject to processing.
1.5. The foreign trade turnover of foreign economic activity entities is the volume of their export-import transactions over a certain period of time (usually one year).
1.6. The physical volume of foreign trade of foreign trade entities is an assessment of their export-import transactions in constant prices of a certain time, usually for a certain year.
1.7. General trade of foreign trade entities is the volume of their foreign trade turnover, taking into account the cost of transit goods. This indicator, for example, characterizes the foreign trade of the state as a subject
1.8. Special trade of foreign economic activity subjects is net foreign trade turnover, that is, products that were finally exported or imported from the country.
2. According to the structure criterion, the following VT indicators are distinguished:
2.1. The commodity structure of foreign trade of foreign economic activity subjects is the distribution of the volume of exports to imports by main commodity items. The latter, for example, are reflected in the Unified Customs Tariff of Ukraine, where all goods subject to export or import in our state are indicated.
2.2. The geographical structure of foreign trade of foreign trade entities is the distribution of their exports and imports by individual countries, groups of countries, regions of the world,
2.3. The institutional structure of foreign trade of foreign economic activity subjects is the distribution of foreign trade by subjects and methods of carrying out export-import operations.
3. According to the criterion of the dynamics of foreign trade of foreign economic activity subjects, the following indicators are distinguished:
3.1. Export growth rates of foreign trade entities.
3.2. Growth rate of imports of foreign trade entities.
3.3. Growth rate of foreign trade turnover.
3.4. Export growth rate.
3.5. Import growth rate.
3.6. Growth rate of foreign trade turnover.
4. According to the criterion of the effectiveness of foreign trade of foreign economic activity subjects, the following indicators are distinguished:
4.1. The trade balance of foreign economic activity subjects is the ratio of the value of exports and imports of goods for a certain period of time (usually a month, quarter, year). The specific value of the trade balance of foreign economic entities is the difference between the value of their exports and imports.
E - I = Balance
In this regard, the following are highlighted:
Positive trade balance of foreign economic activity subjects. This means that the value of exports exceeds the value of imports;
Negative trade balance of foreign economic entities - the value of imports exceeds the value of exports
4.2. The balance of services of subjects of foreign trade objects is the difference between the cost of services provided by subjects of foreign trade and the cost of services they receive. This indicator also:
Positive balance - the cost of exporting services is higher than the cost of importing services;
Negative balance - the cost of importing services is greater than the cost of exporting services.
4.3. Conditions of foreign trade of foreign economic activity subjects. This indicator is calculated as a terms of trade index using the following formulas:
IUYA zti = And the middle tzin Ei / And the middle tzin Ii,
where IUYA zti is the index of VT conditions in the i-th year:
numerator - index of average export prices in the i-th year;
denominator is the index of average import prices in the i-th year.
If the foreign trade terms index is equal to 1, then these conditions have not changed compared to the previous year.
If the share is less than 1, then the terms of foreign trade have worsened. This means that goods are sold cheaper and bought at higher prices.
If the share is greater than 1, then the terms of foreign trade have improved. This means that goods are sold at higher prices than purchased.
The indicator of export conditions for subjects of foreign trade activities is the index of average export prices. Calculated using the following formula:
And middle.cin Ei = And middle.cin Ei / And middle.cin Eb,
where the numerator is the index of average export prices in the i-th year;
the denominator is the index of average export prices in the base year.
If the share is equal to 1, then the export conditions of foreign trade entities have not changed.
If the share is less than 1, then the export conditions of foreign trade entities have worsened. This means that goods are sold at lower prices in a given year compared to the previous year.
If the share is greater than 1, then the export conditions of foreign trade entities have improved. This means that in a given year goods are exported by foreign trade entities at higher prices than in the previous year.
Indicator of import conditions for sub-objects of foreign trade activities. Calculated using the formula:
INDEX S.C. 1 (2009) = And S.Ts. II / I S.Ts. AI,
where the numerator is the Average Import Price Index in the i-th year; the denominator is the index of average import prices in the base year.
If the share is equal to 1. then the conditions for import of foreign economic entities have not changed.
If the share is greater than 1, then the import conditions of foreign economic entities have worsened. This means that foreign trade entities import goods in a given year at higher prices than in the previous year.
If the share is less than 1, then the import conditions for foreign trade entities have improved. This means that foreign trade entities import goods in a given year at lower prices than in the previous year.
Thus, we examined the content and main indicators of foreign trade of foreign trade entities,
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