N.F. Dobritsyn: attention is the direction and concentration of a person’s mental activity. Direction is understood as the selective nature of activity, concentration - deepening into a given activity.
L.N. Kuleshova: like memory, attention refers to end-to-end mental processes. Therefore, it can be represented as a process (or aspects of a process: for example, sensory, perceptual, intellectual attention), and as a state (for example, a state of concentration), and as a personality trait (for example, attentiveness.
In contrast to memory, the regulatory function of attention appears more clearly, which provides grounds for classifying its types depending on the levels of mental regulation. This classification provides for the division of attention into involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary. If direction and concentration are involuntary, then we speak of involuntary attention. Involuntary attention is due to how physical characteristics stimulus (intensity, contrast, duration, suddenness, etc.), and the significance of the stimulus for a person. If the direction and concentration of a person’s attention is associated with a consciously set goal, then they speak of voluntary attention. Along with these two types of attention, a third is also distinguished - post-voluntary. In this case, the conscious performance of any task is accompanied, as Dobritsyn says, by the absorption of the individual by this activity and does not require volitional efforts.
The main characteristics of attention include volume / selectivity / stability / concentration / distribution / switching.
Attention span is the number of objects that can be clearly perceived in a relatively short period of time. Modern experiments have suggested that the attention span is six. Voluntary regulation of attention span with isolated stimuli is limited. With semantic organization of stimuli, it is much higher. The limited scope of attention requires the subject to constantly highlight any objects located in the sensory-perceptual zone, and unselected objects are used by him as a background. This selection from a variety of signals of only some of them is called selectivity of attention. A quantitative parameter of attention selectivity is considered, for example, the speed at which a subject selects a stimulus from many others, and a qualitative parameter is accuracy, i.e. the degree of correspondence of the choice results to the original stimulus material.
Stability of attention is the subject’s ability not to deviate from the direction of mental activity and maintain focus on the object of attention. Characteristics of stability of attention are the time parameters of the duration of maintaining the direction and concentration of mental activity without deviation from the initial qualitative level.
Concentration of attention also involves determining the subject’s ability to maintain concentration on the object of attention in the presence of interference. Attention concentration is assessed by the intensity of interference.
Distribution of attention indicates the subject's ability to direct and focus attention on several independent variables at the same time. Characteristics of attention distribution: temporal indicators obtained as a result of duration comparison correct execution one task and performing the same task together with other (two or more) tasks.
Switching attention is a movement of its focus and concentration from one object to another or from one type of activity to another. The characteristic of switching attention is the degree of difficulty of its implementation, measured by the speed of the subject’s transition from one type of activity to another. It has been established that the speed of switching attention depends both on the stimulus material and on the nature of the subject’s activity with it. In individuals characterized by a mobile nervous system (rapid transition from excitation to inhibition and back), switching attention is easier.
In turn, the direction of mental activity should mean its selective nature, i.e., the selection from the environment of specific objects and phenomena that are significant for the subject, or the choice of a certain type of mental activity. The concept of direction also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time. It is not enough to just choose this or that activity in order to be attentive - you need to maintain this choice, preserve it.
Another characteristic of attention is focus. By concentration, first of all, we mean greater or lesser depth in an activity. The more complex the task, the greater the intensity and intensity of attention should be, i.e., greater depth is required. In addition, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. Direction and concentration are closely related. One cannot exist without the other. However, despite close connection between them, these concepts are not identical. Direction is associated with the transition from one activity to another, and concentration is associated with depth in the activity.
Attention, like any mental process, is associated with certain physiological mechanisms. In general, the physiological basis for the release of individual stimuli and the flow of processes in a certain direction is the excitation of some nerve centers and inhibition of others. A stimulus affecting a person causes activation of the brain. Activation of the brain is carried out primarily by the reticular formation. Irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation causes the appearance of rapid electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex, increases the mobility of nervous processes, and reduces sensitivity thresholds. In addition, the diffuse thalamic system, hypothalamic structures, etc. are involved in brain activation.
Among the “trigger” mechanisms of the reticular formation, the orienting reflex should be noted first of all. It is an innate reaction of the body to any change in the environment in humans and animals. However, attention cannot be explained by the orienting reflex alone. Physiological mechanisms of attention are more complex.
Peripheral mechanisms include the adjustment of sensory organs. Listening to a faint sound, a person turns his head in the direction of the sound and at the same time the corresponding muscle stretches the eardrum, increasing its sensitivity. When the sound is very strong, the tension eardrum weakens, which impairs the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear.
Attention is a selective focus on a particular object, concentration on it.
Since attention is understood only as direction, it cannot be considered as at least somewhat an independent process. Since attention is present in any conscious activity, it acts as an integral side of cognitive processes, and, moreover, the side in which they act as activity aimed at an object; to the same extent, it does not have its own special content.
A change in attention is expressed in a change in the experience of the degree of clarity and distinctness of the content that is the subject of human activity. This is one of the essential manifestations of attention.
Attention finds expression in a person’s relationship to an object. Behind attention are always the interests and needs, attitudes and orientation of a person, his entire personality. This first of all causes a change in attitude towards the object, expressed by attention - its awareness: the object becomes clearer and more distinct. The reasons for attention to a particular object are indicated by its properties and qualities taken in their relation to the subject. Outside of this connection, no genuine reasons indicating why something is heeded by a person and something is not can be established.
Physiological bases of attention.
It has been established that selective attention is based on the general wakefulness of the cerebral cortex and an increase in the activity of its activity. The optimal level of cortical excitability gives the activation of attention a selective character. If there are pockets of optimal arousal, a person constantly pays attention to something. If a person is inattentive in his activities, it means that his attention at this time is distracted or directed to something extraneous, not related to the type of his activity. The important role of the frontal areas of the brain in the selection of information is especially emphasized. With the help of neurophysiological studies, special neurons have been discovered in the brain, called “attention neurons”. These are novelty detector cells that are observed on the entire surface of the cerebral cortex and even in internal structures. Depending on the presence of a conscious choice of direction and regulation, post-voluntary (or secondary involuntary), voluntary and involuntary are distinguished.
Involuntary attention (passive). A type of attention in which there is no conscious choice of direction and regulation. It is established and maintained independently of a person's conscious intention. It is based on unconscious human attitudes. As a rule, short-term, quickly turning into arbitrary. The occurrence of involuntary attention can be caused by the peculiarity of the influencing stimulus, and also be determined by the correspondence of these stimuli to past experience or the mental state of a person. Sometimes involuntary attention can be useful, both at work and at home; it gives us the opportunity to promptly identify the appearance of a stimulus and accept necessary measures, and facilitates inclusion in usual activities. But at the same time, involuntary attention can have a negative impact on the success of the activity being performed, distracting us from the main thing in the task at hand, reducing the productivity of work in general. For example, unusual noise, shouting and flashing lights during work distract our attention and make it difficult to concentrate.
Voluntary attention. The physiological mechanism of voluntary attention is the focus of optimal excitation in the cerebral cortex, supported by signals coming from the second signaling system. Hence, the role of the word of the parents or teacher in the formation of voluntary attention in the child is obvious. The emergence of voluntary attention in a person is historically associated with the labor process, since without managing one’s attention it is impossible to carry out conscious and planned activity.
Psychological feature voluntary attention is accompanied by its experience of greater or lesser volitional effort, tension, and prolonged maintenance of voluntary attention causes fatigue, often even greater than physical stress. It is useful to alternate strong concentration of attention with less strenuous work, by switching to lighter or interesting views actions or arouse in a person a strong interest in a matter that requires intense attention. The person makes a significant effort of will, concentrates his attention, understands the content necessary for himself and then, without volitional effort, carefully follows the material being studied. His attention now becomes secondarily involuntary, or post-voluntary. It will significantly facilitate the process of assimilation of knowledge and prevent the development of fatigue. Post-voluntary attention. A type of attention in which there is a conscious choice of the object of attention, but there is no tension characteristic of voluntary attention. Education related new installation, associated more with actual activity than with a person’s previous experience (as opposed to involuntary).
Basic properties of attention
Concentration is maintaining attention on an object. Such retention means isolating the “object” as some certainty, a figure, from the general background. Since the presence of attention means the connection of consciousness with a certain object, its concentration on it, on the one hand, and the clarity and distinctness, the given consciousness of this object, on the other, we can talk about the degree of this concentration, that is, the concentration of attention, which, naturally, will manifest itself in the degree of clarity and distinctness of this object. Since the level of clarity and distinctness is determined by the intensity of the connection with the object, or side of the activity, the concentration of attention will express the intensity of this connection. Thus, concentration of attention is understood as the intensity of concentration of consciousness on an object.
Volume. Since a person can simultaneously clearly and distinctly be aware of several homogeneous objects, we can talk about the volume of attention. Thus, the volume of attention is the number of homogeneous objects that can be perceived simultaneously and with equal clarity. According to this property, attention can be either narrow or broad.
Sustainability. In contrast, lability is characterized by a duration during which concentration of attention remains at the same level. Most essential condition stability of attention is the ability to reveal new aspects and connections in the subject to which it is directed. Attention is stable where we can expand the content given in perception or thinking, revealing new aspects in it in their interrelations and mutual transitions, where opportunities for further development, movement, transition to other sides, deepening into them.
Switchability. Conscious and meaningful, intentional and purposeful, due to the setting of a new goal, a change in the direction of consciousness from one subject to another. Only under these conditions do we speak of switchability. When these conditions are not met, they speak of distractibility. A distinction is made between complete and incomplete (complete and incomplete) switching of attention.
Distribution. Ability to hold several dissimilar objects in the spotlight.
Attention
Attention functions:
1) the function of selecting significant impacts that meet the needs of a given activity;
2) the function of ignoring other unimportant competing influences;
3) the function of retention, maintaining the activity being performed until the goal is achieved, i.e. regulation and control of activity.
Types of attention:
Involuntary attention- involuntary, spontaneously occurring attention caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new, unexpected stimulus or a significant stimulus that evokes an emotional response.
Voluntary attention- conscious concentration on certain information requires volitional efforts, tires after 20 minutes.
Post-voluntary attention- is caused through entry into activity and the interest arising in connection with this, as a result long time focus is maintained, tension is relieved and the person does not get tired, although post-voluntary attention can last for hours.
Qualities or properties of attention:
concentration- degree of concentration of attention on the object; volume - the number of objects that can be captured by attention at the same time;
switching- intentional, conscious transfer of attention from one object to another;
distribution- the ability to hold several objects in the sphere of attention at the same time, to perform several types of activities;
sustainability- duration of concentration of attention on an object.
The pattern of circulation of attention is that every 6-10 seconds the human brain switches off from receiving information for a split second, as a result, some part of the information may be lost. Research by B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn showed that the quality of attention depends on the properties nervous system person. It was found that for people with a weak nervous system, additional stimuli prevent them from concentrating, and for those with a strong nervous system, they even increase their concentration.
However, the lack of stimuli and information is an unfavorable factor. Studies have shown that when a person is isolated from irritants coming from the environment and from his own body (sensory deprivation, when a person is placed in a soundproof chamber, wearing light-proof glasses, placed in a warm bath to reduce skin sensitivity), then physically normal healthy man Quite quickly he begins to experience difficulties in controlling his thoughts, he loses orientation in space, in structure own body, he begins to have hallucinations and nightmares. When examining people after such isolation, they observed disturbances in the perception of color, shape, size, space, time, and sometimes the constancy of perception was lost.
Attention is one of those human cognitive processes in which
regarding the essence and the right to self-examination
which there is still no agreement among psychologists, despite the fact that its research has been going on for many centuries. Some scientists argue that attention does not exist as a special, independent process, that it acts only as a side or moment of any other psychological process or human activity. Others believe that attention is a completely independent mental condition human, a specific internal process that has its own characteristics that are not reducible to the characteristics of other cognitive processes. To substantiate their point of view, supporters of the latter opinion point out that in the human brain it is possible to detect and distinguish special types of structures associated specifically with attention, anatomically and physiologically relatively autonomous from those that ensure the functioning of other cognitive processes. It was pointed out, in particular, the role of the reticular formation in providing attention to the orientation reflex as its possible innate mechanism and, finally, to the dominant, studied and described in connection with attention by A. Ukhtomsky.
Really, in system psychological phenomena attention
occupies a special position. It is included in all other mental processes, acts as their necessary moment, and it is not possible to separate it from them, isolate it and study it in its “pure” form. We deal with the phenomena of attention only when we consider the dynamics of cognitive processes and the characteristics of various mental states of a person. Whenever we try to highlight the “matter” of attention, distracting ourselves from the rest of the content of mental phenomena, it seems to disappear.
However, one cannot help but see the peculiarities of attention that run like a red thread through all other psychic phenomena, where it manifests itself, not reducible to moments various types activities in which a person is involved. This is the presence in it of some dynamic, observable and measurable characteristics, such as volume, concentration, switchability and a number of others, not directly related to cognitive processes such as sensations, perception, memory and thinking.
The correct solution to the problem under discussion is to try to combine and take into account both points of view, that is, to see in attention both the side of processes and phenomena, and something independent, independent of them. This means taking the point of view according to which attention as a separate mental process adjacent to others does not exist, but is a completely special state that characterizes all these processes as a whole. This position is confirmed by known anatomical and physiological data, the main of which are the following:
1. The dominant mechanism as a physiological correlate of attention can be observed on the entire surface of the cerebral cortex, regardless of projection zones what specific analyzers are localized in them.
2. Reticular formation, the work of which is associated with the phenomenon
attention, is in the path of nerve impulses concerning
almost all cognitive processes (nonspecific pathways
afferent and efferent conduction of sensory information).
3. Attention neurons - novelty detector cells - can be found on almost the entire surface and in some internal structures of the brain.
4. At the same time, all three named anatomical and physiological factors in the central nervous system exist autonomously and independently of individual touch analyzers, which suggests that attention is still a special phenomenon, irreducible to all others.
What is the essence of this process and at the same time the state of the human psyche? Let us consider this issue first illustratively, and then in a more precise definition.
One of the most characteristic features of our spiritual life, wrote the famous American psychologist E. Titchener, is the fact that, being under a constant influx of more and more new impressions, we note and notice only the smallest, insignificant part of them. Only this part of external impressions and internal sensations is highlighted by our attention, appears in the form of images, is recorded in memory, and becomes the content of reflection.
Attention can be defined as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. They are expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area of external or internal reality, which this moment time become conscious and concentrate mental and physical strength person for a certain period of time . Attention- This is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of some information coming through the senses and ignoring others.
The flow of information, the expansion of human contacts, the development of diverse forms of mass culture, the growth of the pace of life lead to an increase in the amount of knowledge necessary for life to modern man. The ongoing changes in society have also influenced the development of children, who are actively involved in the whirlpool of our hectic life, and have put forward new demands in general.
Preschool education began to be considered as the first stage in the entire system of lifelong education. The preschool institution is designed to create conditions for intellectual, creative, emotional, physical development child and prepare him for school. One of the indispensable conditions for successful learning at school is the development of voluntary, deliberate attention in preschool age.
The preschooler’s attention reflects his interests in relation to surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused on an object or action only until his interest in this object or action fades away. The appearance of a new object causes a switch of attention, so children rarely do the same thing for a long time.
Attention in itself is not a special cognitive process. it is inherent in any cognitive process (perception, thinking, memory) and acts as the ability to organize this process.
Attention is a mental state that characterizes the intensity cognitive activity and expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area (actions, subject, phenomenon).
The following forms of attention are distinguished:
Sensory (perceptual);
Intellectual (mental);
Motor (motor).
Activation of necessary and inhibition of currently unnecessary mental and physiological processes;
Retention, preservation of images of a certain subject content until the goal is achieved;
Regulation and control of activities.
Attention is characterized by various qualities or properties. Attention has a complex functional structure formed by the interrelations of its basic properties.
Properties of attention are divided into primary and secondary. The primary ones include volume, stability, intensity, concentration, distribution of attention, and the secondary ones include fluctuations and switching of attention.
The scope of attention is the number of objects (or their elements) perceived simultaneously with sufficient clarity and distinctness. The more objects or their elements are perceived simultaneously, the greater the volume of attention and the more effective the activity will be.
To measure attention span, special techniques and tests are used. As we age, our attention span expands. The attention span of an adult is from four to seven objects at a time. However, attention span is an individual variable, and the classic indicator of attention span in children is the number 3+-2.
Sustainability of attention - its temporary characteristic - is the duration of maintaining attention to the same object or activity. Stability is maintained in practical activities with objects and in active mental activity. Sustained attention is maintained in work that gives positive results, especially after overcoming difficulties, which causes positive emotions and a feeling of satisfaction.
An indicator of attention stability is high productivity of activity over a relatively long period of time. Sustainability of attention is characterized by its duration and degree of concentration.
Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic voluntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations are usually two to three seconds and reach 12 seconds.
If attention is unstable, the quality of work decreases sharply. The following factors influence the stability of attention:
Complication of the object (complex objects cause complex active mental activity, which is associated with the duration of concentration);
Personal activity;
Emotional state (under the influence of strong stimuli, attention may be distracted by foreign objects);
Attitude to activity;
The pace of activity (for stability of attention, it is important to ensure an optimal pace of work: if the pace is too low or too high, nervous processes radiate to unnecessary areas of the cerebral cortex), concentrating and switching attention becomes difficult.
Stability is closely related to the dynamic characteristics of attention, for example, with its fluctuations (punctuation). The dynamics of attention are manifested in shifts in stability over a long period of work, which is divided into next stages concentration:
Initial entry into work;
Achieving concentration of attention, then its micro-oscillations, overcome through volitional efforts;
Decreased concentration and performance as fatigue increases.
The intensity of attention is characterized by a relatively large expenditure of nervous energy when performing this type of activity. Attention in a particular activity can manifest itself with different intensity. During any work, it manifests itself with varying intensity. During any work, moments of very intense attention alternate with moments of weakened attention. Thus, in a state of fatigue, a person is not capable of intense attention and cannot concentrate, which is accompanied by an increase in inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex and the appearance of drowsiness as a special act of protective inhibition. Physiologically, the intensity of attention is due to an increased degree of excitatory processes in certain areas of the cerebral cortex with simultaneous inhibition of other areas.
Concentration is the degree of concentration. Focused is attention that is directed to one object or type of activity and does not extend to others. Concentration (focus) of attention on some objects implies simultaneous distraction from everything extraneous. Concentration is a necessary condition for comprehending and imprinting information entering the brain, and the reflection becomes clearer and more distinct.
Focused attention is of high intensity, which is necessary to perform important species activities. Physiological basis concentrated attention are the optimal intensity of excitatory processes in those parts of the cerebral cortex that are associated with this type of activity while simultaneously developing strong inhibitory processes in other parts of the cortex.
Focused attention is characterized by clearly expressed external signs: appropriate posture, facial expressions, expressive lively gaze, quick reaction, inhibition of all unnecessary movements. In the same time external signs not always do not always correspond to the actual state of attention. So, for example, silence in the classroom can indicate both passion for the subject and complete indifference to what is happening.
Distribution of attention is a person’s ability to keep a certain number of objects in the center of attention at the same time, i.e. This is the simultaneous attention to two or more objects while simultaneously performing actions with them or observing them. Divided attention is a necessary condition for the successful performance of many activities that require the simultaneous performance of disparate operations.
Attention distribution is a property of attention that is associated with the possibility of simultaneously successfully performing (combining) two or more different types of activities (or several actions). When considering the distribution of attention, it is necessary to consider that:
The difficulty is combining two or more types of mental activity;
It is easier to combine motor and mental activities;
To successfully perform two types of activities simultaneously, one type of activity must be brought to automaticity.
The ability for concentrated or, conversely, distributed attention is formed in the process of practical activity through exercise and accumulation of relevant skills.
Switching attention is a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another or from one activity to another in connection with the formulation of a new task. In general, switching attention means the ability to quickly navigate difficult situation. Switching attention is always accompanied by some nervous tension, which is expressed in volitional effort. Switching attention is manifested in the subject's deliberate transition from one type of activity to another, from one object to another, from one action to another.
Possible reasons for switching attention: demands of the activity being performed, inclusion in a new activity, fatigue.
Switching can be complete (completed) or incomplete (incomplete)
In the case when a person has moved on to another activity, but has not yet been completely distracted from the first. The ease and success of switching attention depends on:
From the relationship between antecedent and subsequent activities;
From the completion of the previous activity, or its incompleteness;
From the subject’s attitude to a particular activity (the more interesting it is, the easier it is to switch, and vice versa);
From the individual characteristics of the subject (type of nervous system, individual experience, etc.);
From the significance of the goal of the activity for a person, its clarity, precision.
Along with the switching of attention, attention is distracted - an involuntary movement of attention from the main activity to objects that are not important for its successful implementation. It's difficult for a child to start new job, especially if it doesn't cause positive emotions, therefore, it is not recommended to frequently change its contents and types unless absolutely necessary. However, when tired and monotonous activities occur, such switching is useful and necessary.
Fluctuations of attention are expressed in the periodic change of objects to which it is drawn. Fluctuations in attention differ from changes in its stability. The change in stability is characterized periodic increase and decreased intensity of attention. Fluctuations can occur even with the most concentrated and sustained attention. The periodicity of fluctuations in attention is clearly manifested in experiments with dual images.
A classic example is a double square, which simultaneously represents two figures: 1) a truncated pyramid, its apex facing the viewer; and 2) a long corridor with an exit at the end. If we look at this drawing even with intense attention, then at certain intervals we will see either a truncated pyramid or a long corridor. This change of objects is an example of fluctuations in attention.
Attention is selective. Thanks to this, the activity has a certain direction. Direction, or selectivity, of attention is manifested in various forms. Initially, the choice of objects of attention is associated with the analysis of a huge flow of information continuously coming from the outside world. This is approximately - research activities occurs largely at the subconscious level. Selectivity of attention manifests itself in vigilance, alertness, and anxious anticipation (involuntary selectivity). The conscious selection of some objects occurs in purposeful cognitive activity. In some cases, selectivity of attention may be in the nature of search, selection, control associated with a specific program (voluntary selectivity). In other cases (for example, reading a book, listening to music, etc.) a clear program is not necessary.
The arbitrariness of attention develops along with the formation of its individual properties. There is also a third stage in the formation of attention - it consists of returning to involuntary attention. This type of attention is called “post-voluntary”. The concept of post-voluntary attention was introduced by N. F. Dobrynin. Post-voluntary attention arises on the basis of voluntary attention and consists of focusing on an object due to its value (significance, interest) for the individual.
Thus, three stages of attention development can be distinguished:
Primary attention evoked by a variety of stimuli that produce strong impact on the nervous system;
Secondary attention - focusing on one object, despite the presence of others (differentiation);
Post-voluntary attention, when an object is held in attention without special effort.
The source of voluntary (intentional) attention is entirely determined by subjective factors. Voluntary attention serves to achieve the goal set and accepted for execution. Depending on the nature of these conditions and on the system of activity in which acts of voluntary attention are included, the following varieties are distinguished.
The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the flow of mental processes. Currently, voluntary attention is understood as an activity aimed at controlling behavior and maintaining stable selective activity.
Characteristics of voluntary (intentional) attention:
Purposefulness is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity:
The organized nature of the activity - a person prepares to be attentive to this or that object, consciously directs his attention to it, organizes the mental processes necessary for this activity;
Sustainability - attention continues for a more or less long time and depends on the tasks or work plan in which we express our intention.
Reasons for voluntary attention:
The interests of a person that motivate him to engage in this type of activity;
Awareness of duty and responsibilities that require performing this type of activity as best as possible.
The initial phenomenological description of voluntary attention always emphasized the need for conscious efforts to focus attention in a certain direction, noted its pulsating nature and other features accessible to introspection (W. James).
The transition to characterizing the psychological nature of voluntary attention begins with an attempt to understand its motivation. T. Ribot believed that the source of those “additional forces” that support the corresponding efforts are “natural engines that deviate from the direct goal and are used to achieve another goal.” This implies an understanding of the genesis of voluntary attention as a change in the system of its motivation.
N. N. Lange noted such an important, internal difference of voluntary attention as the fact that the goal of the process is known in advance to the subject. In other words, he has, although incomplete and pale, preliminary knowledge about the object of attention.
A special place is also occupied by the considerations of many authors about physiological mechanisms the feeling of effort experienced by a person.
The research itself psychological mechanisms voluntary attention can be dated back to the works of L. S. Vygotsky. In the context of the ideas of the French sociological school about the culturally mediated nature of voluntary behavior, it was experimentally shown that the genesis of voluntary attention includes the conscious use of various stimulus-means that have a symbolic character.
Within the framework of P. Ya. Galperin’s idea that attention is a control activity, the mechanism of voluntary attention is considered as a shortened form of action control. Such control is carried out on the basis of a pre-drawn plan and using pre-established criteria and methods of their application.
These approaches to understanding the mechanisms of voluntary attention take us to a new plane of its analysis. Indeed, both the use of means and the exercise of control presupposes the performance of a certain set of external and internal actions or operations. It is advisable to analyze them in the context of activity theory or the so-called activity approach.
The initial components of the structure of activity - needs, motives, actions, operations - have been studied very unevenly. A significant number of experimental works have been devoted to the problem of motives. The main attention was paid to actions constituting thinking processes (P. Ya. Galperin, Ya. A. Ponomarev).
Only in the mid-60s. sporadic works appear aimed at analyzing the composition of those internal operations things that need to be done to achieve a certain result. The first work in this direction was a study by N. S. Pantina, in which it was shown that such a seemingly simple process as assembling a children's pyramid according to a pattern can be built on the basis of different and quite complex sets of operations.
The development of attention in ontogenesis was analyzed by L.S. Vygotsky. He wrote that “the culture of attention development consists in the fact that, with the help of an adult, a child learns a number of artificial stimuli - signs through which he further directs his own behavior and attention.”
Process age development attention, according to A.N. Leontiev, is an improvement in attention with age under the influence of external stimuli. Such stimuli are surrounding objects, adult speech, and individual words. From the first days of a child’s life, attention is largely directed using stimulus words.
Development of attention in childhood goes through a series of successive stages:
1) the first weeks and months of a child’s life are characterized by the appearance of an orientation reflex as an objective innate sign of involuntary attention, concentration is low;
2) by the end of the first year of life, tentative research activity arises as a means of future development of voluntary attention;
3) the beginning of the second year of life is characterized by the appearance of the rudiments of voluntary attention: under the influence of an adult, the child directs his gaze to the named object;
4) in the second and third years of life, the initial form of voluntary attention develops. The distribution of attention between two objects or actions is practically impossible for children under three years of age;
5) at 4.5-5 years old, the ability to direct attention under the influence of complex instructions adult;
6) at 5-6 years old, an elementary form of voluntary attention appears under the influence of self-instruction. Attention is most stable in vigorous activity, in games, manipulation of objects, when performing various actions;
7) at the age of 7, attention develops and improves, including volitional;
8) in older preschool age the following changes occur:
The scope of attention expands;
Stability of attention increases;
Voluntary attention is formed.
Attention span depends largely on the child's past experiences and development. An older preschooler is able to keep a small number of objects or phenomena in his field of vision.
Research conducted by T. V. Petukhova shows that older preschoolers can not only spend a longer time doing uninteresting work (on instructions from an adult), but are much less likely to be distracted by foreign objects than younger preschoolers.
During preschool age, the child’s attention becomes not only more stable and wider in scope, but also more effective. This is especially clearly manifested in the formation of voluntary action in a child.
During preschool age, due to the complication of children’s activities and their general mental development children's activities and their general mental development, attention becomes more focused and stable. So, if younger preschoolers can play the same game for 25-30 minutes, then for 5-6 year olds the duration of the game increases to 1-1.5 hours. This is explained by the fact that the game gradually becomes more complex and interest in it is maintained by the constant introduction of new situations.
Voluntary attention is closely related to speech. In preschool age, voluntary attention is formed in connection with the general increase in the role of speech in regulating the child’s behavior. The better the speech is developed in a preschool child, the higher the level of development of perception and the earlier voluntary attention is formed.
The physiological basis of involuntary attention is the orienting reflex. This form attention predominates in preschoolers and occurs in junior schoolchildren at the beginning of training. The reaction to everything new and bright is quite strong at this age. The child cannot yet control his attention and often finds himself at the mercy of external impressions. The attention of an older preschooler is closely related to thinking. Children cannot focus their attention on the unclear, incomprehensible; they are quickly distracted and begin to do other things. It is necessary not only to make the difficult and incomprehensible accessible and understandable, but also to develop volitional efforts, and with it voluntary attention.
With development and improvement mental activity Children are increasingly becoming able to focus their attention on the main, basic, essential.
Although preschoolers begin to master voluntary attention, involuntary attention remains predominant throughout preschool age. It is difficult for children to concentrate on monotonous and unattractive activities, while in the process of playing or solving an emotionally charged productive task they can remain involved in this activity for a long time and, accordingly, be attentive.
This feature is one of the reasons why correctional and developmental work can be based on classes that require DC voltage voluntary attention. The game elements used in the classroom, productive activities, and frequent changes in activity forms make it possible to maintain children’s attention sufficiently high level.
So, attention is understood as a mental state that characterizes the intensity of cognitive activity and is expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area (actions, object, phenomenon).
The main functions of attention are:
Purposeful, organized selection of incoming information (the main selective function of attention);
Ensuring long-term concentration and activity on the same object;
Regulation and control of activities.
Attention is characterized by various qualities or properties. Properties of attention are divided into primary and secondary. The primary ones include volume, stability, intensity, concentration, distribution of attention, and the secondary ones include fluctuations and switching of attention.
Attention has the lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, the latter by voluntary attention.
Voluntary attention - concentration on one object, despite the presence of others (differentiation). The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes. Currently, voluntary attention is understood as an activity aimed at controlling behavior and maintaining stable selective activity. It has its own characteristics and causality.
The development of attention in childhood goes through a number of successive stages. In preschool age, an elementary form of voluntary attention appears under the influence of self-instruction. Attention is most stable in vigorous activity, in games, manipulation of objects, and when performing various actions. The game elements used in classes, productive activities, and frequent changes in forms of activity allow children to develop their voluntary attention.
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