The language of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was distinguished by the confusion and undifferentiation of multi-level (lexical, syntactic, etc.) means in various texts. Here you can also observe “connective” colloquial non-union or connected by unions, characteristic of the old, primitive written business language and, ah, yes, but constructions, which were sometimes complicated by monotonous forms of subordination through subordinating conjunctions as much as possible, so that, in order that etc. and relative words which, which, where etc., in these cases often forming a chain of “mechanical” associative linkages. There was a mixture of colloquial forms with Church Slavonic, book-archaic ones. The logical movement was not ordered; the methods of composing and subordinating sentences were not differentiated. The conjunctions were piled one on top of the other, indicating the logical indivisibility of speech. Forms of clerical syntax triumphed. VC. Trediakovsky condemned this type of syntactic groups in his “Conversation on Orthography”: “ If he finished and he should stop instead of if he finished, then he should stop; although this is true, one must nevertheless remain silent; instead, although this is true, one must nevertheless remain silent» .

However, V.K. himself Trediakovsky has not yet freed himself from the associative fragmentation of speech, often even seeming to cultivate a mechanical, logically unordered concatenation of syntagmas. “The inability or conscious reluctance to truly connect individual parts of a phrase with one complex intonational unity, artificially joining them one to another is reflected in V.K.’s favorite technique. Trediakovsky... when he separates one (or several) of the minor members of the sentence and attaches it at the very end of the phrase using the words “ besides, also", - For example:

Erata with a bow, feet

Jumps, also in poetry...

Pale and stern, sparkling eyes

The same ones have fallen again...

In the simplest constructions, the syntactic center was the verb, surrounded by a few objects or defined by one or two adverbs.

Here are some examples. From the “Notes” of I. Zhelyabuzhsky (1682-1709):

« And the frosts were great, many died on the roads, the snow was also deep, and the water was great in Moscow, it came under the Stone Bridge under the windows and carried away courtyards from the banks, with mansions and people, and drowned many people, and also drowned many churches ...reconsecrated».

From the “Notes” of V.A. Nashchokina:

« Onagozh (1716) in St. Petersburg was very sparsely populated, and there were no regiments except the garrison, but everyone was with the sovereign in the German regions, and nothing else of note happened in St. Petersburg» .

Syntactic diversity of secular and business styles literary language combined with the heterogeneity of their lexical and phraseological composition, with the breadth of their social-dialectal scope. At one end they went into colloquial cities and into the peasant language, including regional dialectisms. In the “vernacular”, as well as in the book language, there were no stable norms in the field of vocabulary and phraseology, and synonyms and dialect doublets of designation were widely used.

Interesting, for example, are the following parallels in the “Book of Lexicon or a collection of speeches in alphabetical order, from Russian to Golan language” (1717): inn, or but the track yard; construction, attach, or the rope for the blinkers that horses use to pull; fly, or scarf, his own they pull the little ones tight under the neck so that the dress does not fade; killjoy, or curmudgeonly; hut, hut; stump, block, block, cutoff; vessel, They spit on him, that is, spit on him etc.

V.N. Tatishchev pointed out in his “Conversation about the benefits of sciences and schools” to many colloquial and village words that “are used to this day” among the nobility: here, damn, ew, this, I'm scared, damn, instead of se, barely, here, scared, demon etc.

Thus, in the field of vocabulary in this transitional era, fermentation and confusion of multilingual and multi-style elements is revealed, reflected in the abundance of undifferentiated synonyms. It is clear that the need for stylistic differentiation and normalization of linguistic forms in new system Russian literary language is becoming more and more tangible and urgent.

The Karamzin reform restricted the range of regional expressions in the literary language. But since the 30s and 40s, dialectisms, especially southern Great Russian ones, begin to seep into literary speech more and more widely.

Progressive writers of the 30-60s persistently developed the idea that only those dialectisms that have a chance of becoming nationally common are literary valuable. Works by N.V. Gogol showed with extraordinary brightness what a wealth of artistic, characteristic and general expressive means hidden in regional folk speech - when used skillfully.

N.V. Gogol, in his journalistic articles, called for the study of folk dialects: “... our extraordinary language itself... is limitless and can, alive as life, enrich itself every minute..., choosing a choice of apt names from its countless dialects scattered throughout our provinces ..." ("What, finally, is the essence of Russian poetry and what is its peculiarity").

Folk language and folklore, according to N.V. Gogol, “a treasure of spirit and character” of the Russian people. However, in the methods of literary application of dialectisms in Russian literature since the 40s, there were many perversions and deviations, which V.G. also struggled with. Belinsky, and N.A. Dobrolyubov, and N.G. Chernyshevsky. The growing democratization of the literary language resulted in the gradual introduction of necessary or successfully applied regional peasant words and expressions into the common language (for example, peck- about business; indiscriminately; take a nap; misfire; mumble and etc.).

Closer interaction between the literary language and oral speech leads to an expansion of the literary use of words and phrases from various professional dialects and jargons of both urban and rural languages (for example, hit your pocket- from a trade dialect; rub the glasses- from a sharpie's argot; stranglehold- from the hunting language; sing along- from the singing dialect, etc.). And in this direction the work of N.V. Gogol, and then N.A. Nekrasova, F.M. Dostoevsky and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin played a decisive role.

Since the 30-40s, there has been a redistribution of functions and influence between different genres of the Russian literary language. Verse gives up its leading role to prose, and in prose the styles of newspaper, magazine, and journalistic speech come to the fore. The journalistic language is formed not on the basis of the styles of official clerical speech, with which it was previously particularly closely associated, but on the basis of a synthesis of the language of artistic prose with the language of philosophy and science.

Of great importance for the formation of a journalistic language was the work on philosophical terminology in the circles of the Russian intelligentsia, who were keen on the philosophy of F. Schelling and G. Hegel (compare the emergence in the 20-40s of such words and terms, which are tracings of the corresponding German expressions: manifestation, education, one-sided, worldview, integrity, consistent, sequence, isolation, appropriate, self-determination and etc.) .

In connection with these changes in the structure of literary speech in the 30-50s, the question of popular scientific language becomes especially relevant. It is symptomatic that N.V. Gogol, responding to this question, outlines the general contours of the language of Russian science, which, in his opinion, should be built independently of the language of “German philosophy.” Distinctive features of Russian scientific language N.V. Gogol recognizes realism and laconicism. He should have the ability not to describe, but to reflect, like in a mirror, an object. “With his living spirit” he will become accessible to everyone: “both the commoner and the non-commoner.”

In connection with the work of Russian society on the language of science and journalism, in connection with the expansion and deepening of the semantic system of the Russian literary language, the question of the meaning and boundaries of borrowings from foreign languages again arises.

As a result of the influence of scientific and journal-journalistic speech on the general literary language, the stock of international vocabulary and terminology is greatly expanding. For example, the following words receive the right of citizenship: agitate, intelligentsia, intellectual, conservative, maximum, minimum, progress, rationalize, communism, international, culture, civilization, real, individual, radical and many others

The semantic change in the Russian language system also affects the attitude towards Church Slavonicisms. Having passed through the refracting environment of scientific or journal-journalistic language, the elements of the old Slavic-Russian language were semantically updated. They were filled with new content (for example, the meaning of such words composed of Slavic-Russian morphemes: representative, indisputable, publicly available, all-crushing, identify, events and etc.). The same words and expressions that retained their connection with the church-book tradition acquired different expressive shades - depending on the style, plot, and also on the ideology of a particular social group.

Thus, in the semantic system of the Russian literary language, the remnants of medieval mythology are gradually dying out. Mutual language in its development follows the progress of science. Not only does the system of meanings and nuances deepen and expand, but the volume of the literary vocabulary also increases. The following ratios of numbers are significant: the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1806-1822) contained 51,388 words; in the “Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian Language” (1847) 114,749 words were already included; " Dictionary"V.I. Dahl went beyond 200,000 words.

In this expansion of the vocabulary fund, a relatively small part was accounted for by borrowings, while the majority was a product of Russian folk art.

By promoting the rapprochement of literary language with popular speech, clearing literary speech of all lexical and phraseological garbage, outlining new ways of verbal creativity, fiction enriches the inventory of general literary speech with new images, apt words, phrases, and new means of expression.

Branch of the St. Petersburg State Engineering and Economic University in Cherepovets

Department of Socio-Humanitarian Disciplines

TEST

In the discipline "Russian language and speech culture"

Topic No. 2 “Russian national language XVIII- XIX centuries.”

Female studentsIcourse

Groups 4 FKS-08

Lyubavicheva V.E.

Cherepovets

Russian National language XVIII - XIX centuries…..…………………………..……………….….3

References………………………………………………………………………………………..11

The Russian national language belongs to the Slavic group of Indo-European languages. In the language, in the most complete way - and, moreover, in the understanding of the people themselves - all stages of the history of the people from further times, all the steps along which the movement of their culture was directed. Therefore, the rich past of a people, the intensive development of its culture is the key to the rich and powerful development of the language of a given people.

An indispensable component of a person’s national self-awareness is a sense of pride in their native language, which embodies the cultural and historical traditions of the people.

The state of the Russian language currently represents a real problem for the state and for the entire society. This is explained by the fact that the entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language testifies to the state of the society itself, its culture, its mentality. Confusion and vacillation in society, the decline of morality, the loss of characteristic national features - all this affects the language and leads to its decline.

The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement there was a confusion of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones. The Russian literary language began its formation in Kievan Rus. In the period of fragmentation in the Old Russian state, territorial dialects and adverbs developed, and the Old Church Slavonic language became such a language. The history of its emergence and formation in Rus' is connected with the Byzantine policy of the Russian princes and with the mission of the brothers - the monks Cyril and Methodius. The interaction of Old Church Slavonic and Russian spoken languages made possible the formation of the Old Russian language.

A new significant stage in the development of the language is associated with the development of the Russian people into a nation - during the period of increasing role of the Moscow state and the unification of Russian lands. At this time, the influence of the church weakened Slavic language, the development of dialects stops, the role of the Moscow dialect increases.

Preserving the language, caring for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture. It is necessary to have an idea of the development and position of the Russian language in different periods of its existence, since the present is deeply and comprehensively comprehended and known only in comparison with the past.

The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed the Old Russian people within the Kyiv state in the 9th century. In the 14th - 15th centuries, as a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, three independent languages arose on the basis of a single language of the Old Russian people: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which with the formation of nations took shape into national languages.

The Russian national language began to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development of capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into a nation. Phonetic system, grammatical structure, and basic lexicon Russian national language are inherited from the language of the Great Russian nationality, which developed in the process of interaction between the northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north and the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. It was the Moscow business vernacular that had a significant influence on the development of the national language. During the period of its formation, firstly, the development of new dialectal features in dialects stops, although the old dialectal features turn out to be very stable. Secondly, the influence of the Church Slavonic language is weakening. Thirdly, a literary language of a democratic type is developing, based on the traditions of the language of business Moscow.

The 18th century became an important stage in the development of the Russian national language. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. What was required was the democratization of the language, the introduction of elements of living colloquial speech into its structure.

The 18th century is of greatest interest for understanding the formation and development of the literary language, when progressively minded circles of society tried to raise the authority of the Russian language and prove its worth as a language of science and art.

In society there is an understanding of the role of the Russian language as distinctive feature Russian people. Main role in the theoretical justification of the meaning of the Russian language played by M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a “Russian grammar”, which has theoretical and practical meaning: ordering of literary language and development rules for using its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Oratorio is stupid, poetry is tongue-tied, philosophy is unfounded, history is incomprehensible, jurisprudence without grammar is dubious.” Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language, which made it one of the most important world languages:

"the vastness of the places where he dominates"

“your own space and contentment.”

Possessing talent, enormous knowledge, and a passionate desire to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he creates the first “Russian Grammar” in the Russian language, in which he introduces for the first time scientific system Russian language, creates a code grammar rules, shows how to use its rich capabilities. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language as a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that people need it for “the flow of harmony in common affairs, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts,” i.e. necessary for joint activities, her organization. According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, as a result of which “their very existence is vain and useless.”

Wanting to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M.V. Lomonosov argued that at the first Russian university Russian professors should teach in Russian.

About the superiority of the Russian language over others, about the undeserved disdainful attitude towards the Russian language, about its underestimation on the part of not only foreigners, but also the Russians themselves, M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to “Russian Grammar”: “The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where he dominates, but also by his own space and contentment, he is great in front of everyone in Europe. This will seem incredible to foreigners and to some natural Russians who have put more effort into foreign languages than into their own.” And further: “Charles V, the Roman emperor, used to say that it is decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would have added that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would have found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, in addition to the richness and strength in the images brevity of Greek and Latin."

In the 18th century, the Russian language was renewed and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, and German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language and its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical. However overindulgence using foreign words did not contribute to the clarity and accuracy of expression of thought. Peter the Great was forced to issue an order according to which “it was prescribed that everything should be written in the Russian language, without using foreign words and terms,” since from the abuse of other people’s words “it is impossible to understand the matter itself.”

Thus, an emotionally rich stream of Western European gallant phraseology poured into the Russian literary language of the early 18th century, corresponding to the changed secular etiquette and Europeanized forms of secular treatment, especially in the relations between men and women of secular society. Phraseology in its lexical composition reveals forms of motley, inorganic mixture typical of the Peter the Great era different languages and styles. The lexical basis of both the lyrical and narrative style continues to be Church Slavonicisms and, in general, words and expressions of the old church-literary language. This also includes the morphology of this language - archaic forms of declension with softening of the back ones: forms of declension of non-member participles and comparative degrees of adjectives. This language cannot do without the participation of command vocabulary.

And finally, Russian colloquial and everyday vernacular and a reflection of folk poetry appear in a very unique form. In fact, the spoken language of the city plays a prominent role in this new style - a secular expression of gallantry and erotic longing.

The fight against the dominance of foreigners in the highest government and bureaucratic apparatus, the growth of national self-awareness in Russian society in the 40s of the 18th century affected the understanding of the literary functions of the Church Slavonic language, especially in the sphere of high syllables.

The desire to limit the increase to “Europeanisms” and to eradicate the distortion of the Russian language into the German or French mode led to a revaluation of the historical role of the Church Slavonic language in the system of the national Russian literary language. The issue of regulating literary styles on the basis of mixing in different doses and proportions the Church Slavonic language with the Russian people acquired extraordinary urgency.

With its numerous scientific works M.V. Lomonosov contributes to the formation of scientific language. A scientist who made many discoveries in various fields of knowledge, he was forced to create scientific and technical terminology. He owns words that have not lost their significance even today: atmosphere, combustion, degree, air pump, matter, circumstance, shaking, electricity, thermometer and others.

In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members include professors, university students, writers, poets, for example, M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov, D.I. Fonvizin, A.N. Sumarokov. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. In addition, it sought to draw attention to the Russian language, promote its dissemination and enrichment.

The propaganda of the Russian language was helped by the magazine “Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word,” the first issue of which was published in 1783. It published only works by Russian authors; there were no translations. The purpose of the magazine is to serve the benefit of native speech.

By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century preferable use of native Russian elements oral and written speech in the Russian language becomes a sign of patriotism, respect for one’s nation, one’s culture. This is precisely what the publicist, participant in the Patriotic War of 1812 F.N. Glinka emphasizes, speaking about Suvorov: “Suvorov knew French perfectly, and always spoke Russian, he was a Russian commander.” Leo Tolstoy’s favorite heroes living at this time (“War and Peace”) mostly speak their native language, Russian.

Writer, historiographer N.M. Karamzin in “Letters of a Russian Traveler” writes with bitter irony “... in our so-called good society without French You will be deaf and dumb. Isn't it a shame? How can you not have people's pride? Why be parrots and monkeys together? Our language for conversations, really, is no worse than others.” In another article, “On Love of the Fatherland and National Pride,” he connects the attitude towards one’s native language with citizenship, respect for one’s country and one’s people:

“Our language is expressive not only for high eloquence, for loud, picturesque poetry, but also for tender simplicity, for the sounds of the heart and sensitivity. It is richer in harmony than French, more capable of pouring out the soul in tones, represents more similar words, i.e. consistent with the action being expressed: the benefit that only indigenous languages have! Our trouble is that we all want to speak French, and don’t think about working on learning our own language; Is it any wonder that we don’t know how to explain to them some subtleties in conversation? One foreign minister said in front of me that our language should be very obscure, because the Russians tell them, according to his remark, they do not understand each other and must immediately resort to French. Are we not the ones who give rise to such absurd conclusions? Language is important for a patriot.”

Karamzin's opponent became Slavophile A.S. Shishkov, believed that the Old Church Slavonic language should become the basis of the Russian national language. Dispute about language between Slavophiles and Westerners was brilliantly resolved in the works of great Russian writers of the early 19th century. A.S. Griboedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of lively spoken language, the originality and richness of Russian folklore. The creator of the national Russian language was A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportionality and conformity”: any element will be appropriate if it accurately conveys thoughts or feelings.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing a common language in order to create uniform spelling, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl.

Academician V.V. Vinogradov in his work “The Main Stages of the History of the Russian Language” deeply and comprehensively defined weak sides Karamzin’s activities in creating a “new style of the Russian language”: “The lack of broad democracy and nationality, disdain for the “common” language and its poetic colors, too straightforward denial of the Slavic-Russian linguistic culture, which still continued to supply the language of science and technology with vocabulary material, and with images and phraseology styles of artistic prose and especially verse, excessive predilection for Europeanisms in the field of phraseology and syntax, and finally, the annoying ease, smoothness and mannerism of presentation in Karamzin’s language dissatisfied various layers of modern Russian society. The need for democratization and comprehensive identity has already been realized by wide circles. national development the language of literature - scientific, political and artistic - in accordance with the growing breadth and depth of social needs."

The 19th century is the “Silver Age” of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, an unprecedented dawn of Russian literature took place. The works of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chekhov and others gain universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others receive worldwide recognition.

And all this is expressed in such original Russian images and phrases, not conveyed by any language in the world; all this represents such an inexhaustible wealth of idioms, Russianisms that make up the folk physiognomy of the language, its original means and original, native wealth - that Pushkin himself is not complete without Krylov in this regard.

A.S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language. His contemporaries wrote about the reformist nature of Pushkin’s work.

N.V. Gogol: “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns on me. It, as if in the lexicon, contains all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than anyone, he has further expanded his boundaries and shown his entire space more than anyone else.”

V.G. Belinsky: “Pushkin killed the illegal rule of French pseudo-classicism in Rus', expanded the sources of our poetry, turned it to national elements of life, showed countless new forms, made it friends with Russian life and Russian modernity, enriched it with ideas, recreated the language to such an extent that even the illiterate could no longer help but write good poetry.”

I.S. Turgenev: “Pushkin’s services to Russia are great and worthy of people’s gratitude. He gave the final treatment to our language, which is now recognized even by foreign philologists as almost the first after ancient Greek in its richness, strength, logic and beauty of form.”

A.S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity. He wrote: “true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn of phrase, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.” Therefore, unlike the Karamzinists and Shishkovists, he did not reject Old Slavonicisms, did not oppose the use of words borrowed from the French language, and did not consider it impossible or shameful to use common and colloquial words. Any word is acceptable in poetry if it accurately and figuratively expresses the concept and conveys the meaning. Folk speech is especially rich in this regard.

Acquaintance with his works shows how creatively and originally Pushkin incorporated colloquial words into poetic speech, gradually diversifying and complicating their functions. No one before Pushkin wrote in such a realistic language, no one so boldly introduced the usual everyday vocabulary V poetic text.

The Russian literary language - a form of the Russian national language, as a written and oral language of educated people - acquired by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries all the qualities of a fairly normalized, multi-genre and stylistically diverse, i.e. statistically free language. At the same time, in those social conditions within the literary language itself, a large fragmentation of social speech varieties was observed. On the other hand, the literary language of that time, in the conditions of a sharply class-based, socially emphasized division of society, was amorphously opposed by numerous folk dialects and socially limited - bourgeois, merchant, etc. - urban speech ( traditional vernacular), the argot and jargon of the so-called unprivileged classes. Unfortunately, a stubborn reluctance to understand that the modern Russian literary language is not a synchronously stable language of the early 19th - 20th centuries leads to the fact that assessments of the linguistic state of the 19th century. ahistorically transferred to the linguistic state of our time.

Literature:

“Russian language and culture of speech”: a textbook for universities / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva edition 22 - Rostov-on-Don Phoenix 2008.
“Russian language and culture of speech”: textbook by N.V. Nefedov - Rostov-on-Don Phoenix 2008.
Russian language and culture of speech": examination answers for university students / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva Phoenix 2003.
“Russian language and culture of speech”: course of lectures by G.K. Trofimov, Moscow publishing house “Flint” 2007
“Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th - 19th centuries” V.V. Vinogradov Moscow “Higher School” 1982

The state of the Russian language at present is the most pressing problem for the state, for the whole society. This is explained by the fact that the entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language testifies to the state of the society itself, its culture, its mentality. Confusion and vacillation in society, the decline of morality, the loss of characteristic national features - all this affects the language and leads to its decline.
Preserving the language, caring for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture. Therefore every citizen Russian Federation, no matter who he works, no matter what position he holds, is responsible for the state of the language of his country, his people. In order to fulfill this civic duty, to consciously take part in language policy,” it is necessary to have an idea of the development and position of the Russian language in different periods of its existence, since the present is deeply and comprehensively comprehended and known only in comparison with the past.
Let's start with the situation of the Russian language in the 18th century, when progressively minded circles of society tried to raise the authority of the Russian language and prove its worth as a language of science and art. A special role in strengthening and spreading
“The wounding of the Russian language during this period was played by M.V. Lomonosov. Possessing talent, enormous knowledge, passionately wanting to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he creates the first “Russian Grammar” in the Russian language, in which he first presents the scientific system of the Russian language, creates a set of grammatical rules, shows how to take advantage of its rich possibilities.
It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language as a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that people need it for “harmonious flow of common affairs, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts,” i.e. necessary for joint activities and their organization. According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why “the very existence of them is vain and useless.”
Understanding perfectly the role of science and education in the glorification of the Fatherland and its prosperity, Lomonosov achieved not only the creation of a university in Moscow, but also the admission of commoners to the number of students. In his opinion: “At the university, the student who has learned more is more respectable, and whose son he is - there is no need for that.”
Wanting to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M.V. Lomonosov argued that the first Russian university should be taught by Russian professors and in Russian. Alas! Scientists were mainly invited from abroad and lectures were given in Latin or German. There were only two Russian professors: N.N. Popovsky (philosophy, literature) and A.A. Barsov (mathematics, literature).
It was N.N. Popovsky, a student of Lomonosov, who began his first lecture within the walls of Moscow University, which opened in 1755, with the words: “Before, it (philosophy) spoke to the Greeks; the Romans lured her away from Greece; she adopted the Roman language very much a short time and with innumerable beauty she reasoned in Roman, as not long before in Greek. Can't we expect similar success in philosophy as the Romans received?.. As for the abundance of the Russian language, the Romans cannot boast to us of that. No
such a thought that would be impossible to explain in Russian.
... So, with God’s assistance, let us begin philosophy not in such a way that only one person in all of Russia or several people understands it, but in such a way that everyone who understands the Russian language can use it comfortably.”
N.N. Popovsky began to give lectures in Russian. This innovation caused dissatisfaction on the part of foreign professors. The debate about whether it was possible to give lectures in Russian lasted for over ten years. Only in 1767 did Catherine II allow lectures to be given at the university in Russian.
M.V. wrote about the superiority of the Russian language over others, about the undeservedly disdainful attitude towards the Russian language, about its underestimation on the part of not only foreigners, but also the Russians themselves. Lomonosov in the preface to the “Russian Grammar”: “The ruler of many languages, the Russian language, not only in the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also in its own space and contentment is great before everyone in Europe. This will seem incredible to foreigners and to some natural Russians who have put more effort into foreign languages than into their own.” And further: “Charles the Fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it is decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would have added that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would have found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, in addition to the richness and strength in the images brevity of Greek and Latin."
What is the Russian language of the 18th century? What features are characteristic of him during this period?
VC. Trediakovsky, in the article “A Tale of Rich, Varied, Skillful and Dissimilar Evolution”, emphasizes how different the situations in which one has to use the Russian language are: “It is necessary to make vows to God, and to swear allegiance to the sovereign, and to humbly ask senators..., and talk in the square, and listen to the comedian, and buy from a merchant,... and hire workers,... and shout at servants, and teach children... all this only in natural language.” But this “natural language” was at that time disordered. The so-called Slavic-Russian language was widely used in fiction, official business documents, and scientific treatises. It was the Russian language, which absorbed the culture of the Old Church Slavonic language. Therefore, the primary task was to create a unified national Russian language.
A concentration of national elements is planned through the selection of the most common features of the South Russian and North Russian dialects. At the same time, the democratization of the language begins: its lexical composition and grammatical structure largely include elements of the living oral speech of urban merchants, service people, the lower clergy, and literate peasants.
Along with democratization, liberation from the influence of the Church Slavonic language, the language of religion and worship, begins.
M.V. did a lot to streamline the Russian language. Lomonosov. Having developed a theory about three styles (high, middle and low), he limited the use of Old Church Slavonicisms, which were already incomprehensible at that time and complicated and burdened speech, especially the language of official, business literature.
In the 18th century, the Russian language was renewed and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, and German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language and its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical. However, excessive enthusiasm for foreign words did not contribute to the clarity and accuracy of expression of thought. Peter I was even forced to issue an order, prior to which “it was prescribed that everything should be written in the Russian language, without using foreign words and terms,” since from the abuse of other people’s words “it is impossible to understand the matter itself.”
M.V. played a significant role in the development of Russian terminology. Lomonosov. As a scientist who made many discoveries in various fields of knowledge, he was forced to create scientific and technical terminology. He owns words that have not lost their significance today: atmosphere, fire, degree, air pump, matter, circumstance, shaking, electricity, thermometer, etc.
With his numerous scientific works, he contributes to the formation of scientific language.
In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members include professors, university students, writers, poets, for example M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov, D.I. Fonvizin, A.N. Sumarokov. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. In addition, it sought to attract attention to the Russian language, promote its dissemination and enrichment.
The propaganda of the Russian language was greatly helped by the magazine “Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word”, the first issue of which was published in 1783. It published works only by Russian authors; there were no translations. The purpose of the magazine is to serve the benefit of native speech.
By the end of the 18th century, the preferred use of the Russian language in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one’s nation, one’s culture. This is precisely what the publicist, participant in the Patriotic War of 1812 F.N. emphasizes. Glinka, speaking about Suvorov: “Suvorov knew French perfectly, and always spoke Russian. He was a Russian commander."
Writer, historiographer N.M. Karamzin in “Letters of a Russian Traveler” writes with bitter irony: “... in our so-called good society, without the French language you will be deaf and dumb. Isn't it a shame? How can you not have people's pride? Why be parrots and monkeys together? Our language for conversations, really, is no worse than others*. In another article, “On Love of the Fatherland and National Pride,” he connects the attitude towards one’s native language with citizenship, respect for one’s country, one’s people:
“Our language is expressive not only for high eloquence, for loud, picturesque poetry, but also for tender simplicity, the sound of the heart and sensitivity. It is richer in harmony than French, more capable of pouring out the soul in tones, presents more analogical words, that is, consistent with the action being expressed: a benefit that only indigenous languages have! Our trouble is that we all want to speak French and don’t think about working on mastering our own language; Is it any wonder that we don’t know how to explain to them some of the subtleties in a conversation? One foreign minister said in front of me that our language should be very obscure, because the Russians, when speaking to them, according to his remark, do not understand each other and must immediately resort to French. Are we not the ones who give rise to such absurd conclusions? Language is important for a patriot." Karamzin’s statement reveals his predilection for the aestheticized word and his reluctance to broadly democratize literary speech.
Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in his work “The Main Stages of the History of the Russian Language,” deeply and comprehensively identified the weaknesses of Karamzin’s activities in creating a “new style of the Russian language”: “The absence of broad democracy and nationalism, neglect of the “common” language and its poetic colors, too straightforward denial of the Slavic- Russian linguistic culture, which still continued to supply the language of science and technology with vocabulary material, and the styles of artistic prose and especially poetry with images and phraseology, an excessive predilection for Europeanisms in the field of phraseology and syntax, and finally, the annoying ease, smoothness and mannerism of presentation in Karamzin’s language did not satisfy different layers of modern Russian society. Wide circles have already realized the need for democratization and comprehensive, original national development of the language of literature - scientific, political and artistic - in accordance with the growing breadth and depth of social needs."
The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic and Russian languages. As proof, Shishkov offered a comparison
thread of expression; “the young maid trembles” and “the young maid trembles”; “bending his head on his palm” and “lowering his head on his palm”, In the first contrasting phrases, Old Slavonic words are used: young, trembling, hand, head, which give the narrative a sublime, solemn sound. In other sentences, Russian words are used: young, trembling, head, palm, which make the statement lowered, everyday colloquial.
Vinogradov, calling Shishkov a reactionary supporter of church-book culture, nevertheless emphasized that his article “Discourse on the old and new syllable of the Russian language” (1803, 2nd ed., 1818) revealed “a number of significant shortcomings of the Karamzi reform associated with the underestimation cultural heritage Slavicisms, with a lack of understanding of the historical role of the Slavic-Russian language and its means of expression, as well as with an aristocratic attitude towards folk speech and folk poetry.” “Thanks to Shishkov’s work,” continues Vinogradov, “the correspondences in the structure and vocabulary of the Russian and Church Slavonic languages were more deeply understood, and the semantic boundaries between Russian and Western European languages were more precisely defined.”
S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language. His contemporaries wrote about the reformist nature of Pushkin’s work.
N.V. Gogol: “At the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns on me. In fact, none of our poets is higher than him and can no longer be called national; this right is decisively his. It, as if in the lexicon, contains all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than anyone, he has further expanded his boundaries and shown his entire space more than anyone else. Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon and, perhaps, the only manifestation of the Russian spirit: this is Russian man in his development, in which he may appear in two hundred years. In it, Russian nature, Russian soul, Russian language, Russian character were reflected in the same purity, in such purified beauty, in which the landscape is reflected on the convex surface of optical glass.”
G. Belinsky: “It is difficult to characterize in general terms the greatness of the reform carried out in poetry, literature, versions and the Russian language.<...>Not a single poet had such a multifaceted, strong and fruitful influence on Russian literature. Pushkin killed the illegal rule of French pseudo-classicism in Rus', expanded the sources of our poetry, turned it to the national elements of life, showed countless new forms, made friends with Russian life for the first time in Russian modernity, enriched it with ideas, recreated the language to such an extent that even the illiterate they might no longer write good poetry if they wanted to write. Pushkin made a miracle out of the Russian language. He introduced new words into use, gave old ones new life...» .
A: S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He wrote: “True taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn of phrase, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.” Therefore, unlike the Karamzinists and Shishkovists, he did not reject Old Slavonicisms, did not oppose the use of words borrowed from the French language, and did not consider it impossible or shameful to use common and colloquial words. Any word is acceptable in poetry if it accurately and figuratively expresses the concept and conveys the meaning. Folk speech is especially rich in this regard. Pushkin not only himself collects and records folk songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, but also encourages writers, especially young ones, to study oral folk art in order to see and feel national characteristics language, to know its properties.
Acquaintance with his works shows how creatively and originally Pushkin included colloquial words in poetic speech, gradually diversifying and complicating their functions. No one before Pushkin wrote in such a realistic language, no one so boldly introduced ordinary everyday vocabulary into a poetic text. Let us remember the lines from “Count Nulin”. The heroine of the poem Natalya Pavlovna
...soon I somehow got amused by a fight that arose between a Goat and a yard dog in front of the window, and quietly got busy with it - The boys were laughing all around,
Meanwhile, sadly, under the window,
The turkeys came screaming after the wet rooster;
Three ducks were rinsing themselves in a puddle;
A woman was walking through the dirty yard to hang her linen on the fence.
Professor of Moscow University S.P. Shevyrev (1806-1864) wrote: “Pushkin did not disdain a single Russian word and was able, often taking the most common word from the lips of the mob, to correct it so in his verse that it lost its rudeness. In this respect, he is similar to Dante, Shakespeare, our Lomonosov and Derzhavin. Read the poems in The Bronze Horseman:
...Neva all night
Longing for the sea against the storm,
Without overcoming their violent foolishness,
And she couldn’t bear to argue.
Here the words violent nonsense and unbearably are taken out of the mouths of the rabble. Pushkin, following the senior masters, pointed out to us the common language as a rich treasury.”

Publications in the Traditions section

History of the Russian language in the 18th–19th centuries

Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" contains more than 450 thousand words. Of these, almost 700 are German, and more than 15 thousand are French. This is how the writer conveyed the linguistic atmosphere of Russian high society during the era of the Napoleonic Wars, when aristocrats practically did not use their native language in their living rooms and at court. Kultura.RF tells how the Russian language was expelled from salons and how it returned to society.

Reforms of Peter I and the new Russian language

Peter Van Der Werff. Portrait of Peter I. 1697. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

Charles van Loo. Portrait of Elizaveta Petrovna. 1760. State Museum-Reserve "Peterhof", St. Petersburg

Leonid Miropolsky. Portrait of Mikhail Lomonosov. Copy of a portrait by Georg Prenner. 1787. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after Peter the Great, St. Petersburg

Foreign languages in pre-Petrine Russia were not widespread even among educated Russians. Soviet philologist Lev Yakubinsky wrote: "To classes foreign languages looked suspiciously, fearing that with them the Catholic or Lutheran “heresy” would penetrate into the minds of Muscovites. Peter I himself was taught German from childhood, and as an adult the tsar mastered Dutch, English and French. After reforms at the beginning of the 18th century, foreigners poured into Russia, and noble children began to be sent to study in Europe. Appeared in Russian great amount borrowed words that denoted phenomena new to Russia: assembly, ammunition, globe, optics, varnish, fleet, ballast and others.

“Although previously, apart from the Russian language books of reading and writing, none of them Russian people didn’t know how, and, moreover, it’s a shame rather than being revered for art, but now we see His Majesty himself German language speaking, and several thousand subjects of his Russian people, male and female, skilled in various European languages, such as Latin, Greek, French, German, Italian, English and Dutch, and such treatment that they can shamelessly equal with all other European peoples" .
Feofan Prokopovich

The future Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was taught French - not because it was fashionable (Gallomania reached Russia only 50 years later), but because Peter hoped to marry his daughter to a representative of the Bourbon dynasty. Otherwise, Elizabeth differed little from other titled ladies: it was believed that the ability to write and read was more than enough for them.

“Memoirist Ekaterina Elagina recalled her relatives, whose childhood was in the first half of the 18th century: “Maria Grigorievna Bezobrazova... was well educated in those days, because she knew how to read and write. Her sister Alexandra Grigorievna did not achieve this. She signed papers under the dictation of her serf clerk; he told her: “Write “az” - she wrote. “Write “people,” she wrote “people,” she repeated, etc.”
Vera Bokova, “The youth must observe piety...” How noble children were instructed.”

Until the 18th century, primers and grammars were compiled in the high, Church Slavonic dialect. On it, children studied the Book of Hours and psalms after memorizing individual syllables. Separately from Church Slavonic, the Russian literary language began to develop after the alphabet reform, which approved the civil script. The first edition of the new alphabet was personally reviewed by Peter in 1710.

In the 1730s and 40s, works on Russian philology were published in Latin and German - this was customary in scientific circles. Mikhail Lomonosov wrote “Russian Grammar” in Russian only in 1755. The first detailed textbooks on the literary Russian language were published in the 1820s by writer and publicist Nikolai Grech.

The language of royal brides, the church, the army and servants

Fedor Rokotov. Portrait of Catherine II. 1763. State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow

Jean-Laurent Monier. Ceremonial portrait of Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna. 1805. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg

Orest Kiprensky. Portrait of Alexander Pushkin. 1827. State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow

Foreign brides of sovereigns learned the language of their new homeland in mandatory. Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Empress Catherine II, showed great diligence in this matter. Describing her life as the bride of the heir to the throne, Peter Fedorovich, she recalled: “They have already given me three teachers: one, Simeon of Theodore, to instruct me in Orthodox faith; another, Vasily Adadurov, for the Russian language, and Lange, the choreographer, for the dances. To make faster progress in the Russian language, I got out of bed at night and, while everyone was sleeping, memorized the notebooks that Adadurov left me.”.

Count Fyodor Golovkin wrote about another German-born woman, Elizaveta Alekseevna, wife of Alexander I: “She knows the language, religion, history and customs of Russia better than all Russian women.”. Nicholas I's wife Alexandra Fedorovna, on the contrary, was embarrassed to speak Russian due to grammatical errors. Her teacher in the first years of her life in Russia was the poet Vasily Zhukovsky. He discussed lofty subjects with his student and did not pay due attention to such prosaic topics as declension and conjugation.

However, French became the main language of living rooms at the beginning of the 19th century. Aristocrats knew Russian only at the everyday level or did not speak their native language at all. Even a provincial young lady, as Tatyana Larina is described by Pushkin, “...I didn’t know Russian well / I didn’t read our magazines / And I had difficulty expressing myself / In my native language”.

“Tatiana, of course, knew everyday Russian speech, and also, having memorized prayers and attending church since childhood, had a certain skill in understanding solemn church texts. She didn't own written style and could not freely express in writing those shades of feelings for which in French she found ready-made, established forms. A love letter required a more bookish style than oral speech (“Until now, ladies’ love / Has not been expressed in Russian”), and less bookish, more reduced than the language of church texts ( “Our still proud language / I’m not used to postal prose”).
Yuri Lotman, commentary on the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"

Boys in noble families were taught the Russian language purposefully, because they had to serve in the army and command commoner soldiers. But if English misses and French monsieurs were invited to teach European languages, children often learned Russian from servants. As a result, in the speech of the aristocrats, words borrowed from the courtyard people slipped in every now and then. "hope up" or "entot". This was not considered ignorance; society ridiculed mistakes in French much more strongly.

The family of Sergei Pushkin, the father of Alexander Pushkin, was French-speaking. In their house, French teachers changed, and the younger Pushkins spoke Russian only with their nanny Arina Rodionovna and their maternal grandmother, Maria Hannibal. Later, teachers of his native language were assigned to Alexander Pushkin - clerk Alexei Bogdanov and priest Alexander Belikov. Upon entering the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in 1811, 12-year-old Pushkin discovered knowledge “in Russian - very good”. At the lyceum, children were taught in Russian - this was one of the main principles of the educational institution.

From literature to high society

Peter Sokolov. Portrait of Nicholas I. 1820. All-Russian Museum A.S. Pushkin, St. Petersburg

Ivan Kramskoy. Portrait of Alexander III. 1886. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg

Ilya Galkin. Portrait of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. 1895. State Museum-Reserve "Peterhof", St. Petersburg

By the 1820s, a situation had developed where speaking Russian at court was almost indecent, especially in the presence of ladies. But the golden age of Russian literature began. In 1830, a costume ball was held at the Anichkov Palace, at which the maid of honor Ekaterina Tizenhausen read the poem “Cyclops,” which Pushkin wrote especially for the celebration. It was one of three that sounded that evening in Russian. The remaining 14 verses were read in French.

Emperor Nicholas I acted as a defender of the native language. Under him, all office work (except for diplomatic correspondence) began to be conducted again in Russian, and foreigners entering the Russian service from now on had to pass an exam on their knowledge of the language. Moreover, the emperor demanded that both men and women speak Russian at court.

“Most society ladies, especially those born in St. Petersburg, do not know their native language; however, they learn several Russian phrases and, in order not to disobey the emperor, pronounce them when he passes through those halls of the palace where they are currently performing their service; one of them is always on guard in order to give a timely signal, warning about the appearance of the emperor - conversations in French immediately fall silent, and the palace is resounding with Russian phrases designed to please the ear of the autocrat; the sovereign is proud of himself, seeing how long the power of his reforms extends, and his disobedient mischievous subjects laugh as soon as he leaves the door. I don’t know what struck me more in the spectacle of this enormous power - its strength or weakness!”
Astolphe de Custine, "Russia in 1839"

Alexander III also demanded that he be addressed in Russian; in his presence, only Empress Maria Feodorovna, a Danish by nationality, spoke French in his presence, although she also knew Russian well.

However, foreign bonnes and governesses were still invited to the children of aristocrats. At the end of the 19th century, English became the language of the highest aristocracy. Academician Dmitry Likhachev wrote about the Anglophilia of that time: “It was considered particularly sophisticated to speak French with an English accent.”. English was the home language in the family of Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna. Contemporaries noted the emperor's impeccable British pronunciation and the noticeable foreign accent with which he spoke Russian.

And yet, at the beginning of the 20th century, the situation of 100 years ago, when a noblewoman could not understand the speech of the common people at all, was already unthinkable. The literary Russian language, which developed in the 18th–19th centuries, turned out to be in demand in all spheres of life.

“I once asked Academician A.S. before the war. Orlova (Russian and Soviet literary critic - Ed.) - in what social environment was the best, most correct and beautiful Russian language? Alexander Sergeevich thought and did not immediately, but already confidently answered: among the middle nobility, in their estates.”
Dmitry Likhachev, “About Russian and Foreign”

In the 19th century, throughout the century, debates continued about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language, what role should the Church Slavonic language play in the development of its styles, how to treat the common language and vernacular?

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (an outstanding historian, the largest Russian writer of the era of sentimentalism, Honorary Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (1818), creator of the “History of the Russian State" (volumes 1–12, 1803–1826) - one of the first generalizing works on the history of Russia.), his followers and Slavophiles led by Alexander Semenovich Shishkov (writer, public figure, minister of public education).

N. M. Karamzin believed that the Russian language is too difficult to express thoughts and needs to be processed. The transformation of the language, according to Karamzinists, requires its liberation from the consequences of the influence of the Church Slavonic language. You should focus on modern European languages, especially French. The Russian language needs to be lightened, made simple and understandable to a wide range of readers. To do this, it is necessary to exclude archaic and professional Slavicisms and clericalisms, special terms of various crafts and sciences, and crude vernacular. On the other hand, the language needs to create new words, to expand the semantics of old words to designate concepts introduced into use, mainly in secular society. Karamzin created and coined the words: love, public, future, industry, humanity, generally useful, achievable, improve, which still remain relevant today. Karamzin’s statements reveal his passion for the aesthetics of words and his reluctance to broadly democratize literary speech.

Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic and Russian languages. To prove this, Shishkov suggested comparing the expressions: "the young maid trembles" and "the young maid trembles"»; “bending his head on his palm” and “lowering his head on his palm».

Representatives of the democratically minded Russian intelligentsia, expressing their attitude to the activities of Karamzin and Shishkov in the field of reforming the Russian literary language and its styles, emphasized that the issue of a new literary language should not be resolved without taking into account the problem of nationality, without determining the role of living folk speech in the structure of the national language . In this regard, the work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century is indicative, who proved what inexhaustible possibilities living folk speech has, how original, original, and rich the language of folklore is. A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator modern Russian literary language. A. S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity. Therefore, unlike the Karamzinists and Shishkovists, he did not reject Old Slavonicisms, did not oppose the use of words borrowed from the French language, and did not consider it impossible or shameful to use common and colloquial words. The 19th century is called the golden age of Russian literature and the Russian language.

Features of the formation of the modern Russian language in the 19th century.

1. An unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others gains universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition.

2. The development of literature, journalism, science contributes to the further formation and enrichment of the Russian national language. The vocabulary is replenished with new socio-political, philosophical, economic, technical terminology: worldview, integrity, self-determination, proletariat, humanity, education, isolation, reality, lawlessness, serfdom, serfdom, owner, self-control, self-government, impressionability, agrarian, articulation, agglomerate, crystallization, horizon, instance and many more etc. Phraseology is enriched: center of gravity, bring to one denominator, negative value, reach apogee, enter a new phase, along an inclined plane and etc.

3. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology: agitate, intelligentsia, intellectual, conservative, maximum, minimum, progress, international, communism, culture, civilization, real, individual and many more etc.

4. Fiction serves as the basis for replenishing Russian phraseology and the formation of new words. For example: And the casket simply opened; The titmouse brought glory, but did not set the sea on fire; Ay, Moska, know that she is strong, that she barks at an elephant; And Vaska listens and eats; Helpful Fool more dangerous than the enemy; I didn’t even notice the elephant; Thin songs of a nightingale in the claws of a cat; Like a squirrel in a wheel (Krylov); Woe from mind; Let's make noise, brothers, make noise; I walked into a room and ended up in another; A carriage for me, a carriage; Well, how can you not please your loved one; Is it possible to choose a nook (Griboedov) for walks further away? administrative delight (Dostoevsky); bunglers, idealistic crucian carp, watchful eye, stupidity, Judas, soft-bodied intellectual (Saltykov-Shchedrin).

5. The rapid development of science and the steady growth of magazine and newspaper products contributed to the formation of functional styles of literary language - scientific and journalistic.

6. One of the most important signs literary language as highest form national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was underway in order to create uniform grammatical, lexical, spelling, and orthoepic norms. These norms are theoretically substantiated in the works of Vostokov, Buslaev, Potebnya, Fortunatov, Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, Shakhmatov; are described and approved in the grammars of Vostokov, Grech, Kalaidovich, Grot, etc.

7. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries(historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century. For the first time, questions of the theory of lexicography are being developed.