The reforms of Peter 1 made it possible to form a centralized one. Reforms of the army and navy. Goals and objectives of administrative reforms

The table “Reforms of Peter 1” briefly outlines the features of the transformative activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, you can concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all areas of life Russian society first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this The best way in order for middle-level students to master this complex and quite voluminous material, which is very important for analysis and correct understanding of the features historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the “Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table on this topic demonstrates all the data students need.

In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all layers of society and determined the further history of the country. This is precisely the uniqueness of the era of his reign. At the same time, he was a very practical person and introduced innovations based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic “Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, the authorities made significant changes to social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic “The Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on this problem helps students familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. For almost his entire reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic being studied is “The Military Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The importance of military innovations

It shows that the emperor’s steps were dictated by the specific needs of his time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that previously there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the inspections along with several servants, who also had to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had already taken final shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers for service from peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and command personnel.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is “ Political reforms Peter 1". Briefly, the table on this problem clearly demonstrates how deep the transformative activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of which previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created the Senate on the model of Western European countries. Instead of orders, boards were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucratic apparatus.

New administrative division

The topic “State reforms of Peter 1” is no less complex. Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the fundamental changes that have occurred in the organization of local government. Governorates were created that were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. This structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and districts was the voivode.

Changes in industry and trade

Particular difficulty is often caused by studying the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1.” Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost serf-like methods, which could in no way contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as transformations in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in developing trade according to the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that occurred in Russian society of the time being studied. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and government spheres depending not on clan affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous “Table of Ranks” introduced a new principle of service. From now on, in order to receive a promotion or rank, a person had to achieve some success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the clan aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this class, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summing up the results. What significance did the reforms of Peter 1 have in the history of Russia? A table or summary on this topic can serve as an effective means of summing up. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of localism was outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to carry out the new tasks that faced the country in connection with the Northern War and Russia’s entry into the international arena

The role of the emperor's transformative activities

The topic “The Main Reforms of Peter 1”, a table whose summary is an important component in studying the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country onto the European stage and included it among the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, table, summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, gaining access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Reforms of Peter I

Reforms of Peter I- transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activities of Peter I can be divided into two periods: -1715 and -.

A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thought out, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to government reforms, at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, reforms were more systematic.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, on general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest government agency. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the Auditor General, who was renamed Chief Secretary. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In -1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:

The Collegium of Foreign Affairs replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
Military Collegium (Military) - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.
Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
The Patrimonial Collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
The chamber board is the collection of state revenues.
The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenditures,
The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.
Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
Berg College - mining and metallurgy (mining industry).
Manufactory Collegium - light industry (manufactures, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
The College of Justice was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). She worked in civil and criminal court.
The Spiritual College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This board/Synod included representatives of the highest clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the king, and decisions were approved by him, we can say that Russian Emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular authority were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and instill in them respect for the king and the church.
The Little Russian Collegium exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who held power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of a hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The board was headed by a tsarist officer.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, and a Land Survey Office.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Ordinary archers in 1674. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

Army and Navy reforms

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet began necessary conditions victories in the Northern War of 1721. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first conscription yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households were required to send one recruit to lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

Private army infantry. regiment in 1720-32 Lithograph from a 19th century book.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the work of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class. In 1715, the Maritime Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, which strictly defined the service, rights and responsibilities of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,560 in cavalry, 75 thousand in infantry, 14 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.

Church reform

Religious politics

The era of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were subject to burning at the stake. The “schismatics” were allowed to practice their faith, subject to recognition of the existing state order and payment of double taxes. Complete freedom of faith was granted to foreigners coming to Russia, and restrictions on communication between Orthodox Christians and Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).

Financial reform

Some historians characterize Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this was consistent with the idea of mercantilism). Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to, including about 90 that were large manufactories.

Autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated by law in any way, and was entirely determined by tradition. In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not take advantage of the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor.

Class politics

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

Key milestones:

Decree on education of 1706: boyar children in mandatory must receive either primary school or home education.
Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
Decree on sole inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.
“Table of Ranks” () of the year: division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through length of service through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (the Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to class bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry themselves were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (a decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The norm was also confirmed about the transfer into custody of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants, and serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were given the right to move to posads, freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. By decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede for unpaid debts of “manorial” serfs, which was actually a form of serf trade. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessions. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. The only large city was Moscow, which was the capital before the reign of Peter the Great. Although Russia was much inferior to Western Europe in terms of urban and industrial development, during the 17th century. there was a gradual increase. The social policy of Peter the Great concerning the urban population was aimed at ensuring the payment of the poll tax. For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, craftsmen) and irregular citizens (all others). The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular one was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or bore a monetary obligation in the share that fell on him according to the social scheme.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 in the Byzantine era became 1700 AD, and New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, under Peter, uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.

After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I waged a fight against external manifestations“outdated” way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to dissolve the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to “beat the forfeit.” Legislative regulations 1696-1704. on public celebrations, mandatory participation in celebrations and festivities was introduced for all Russians, including the “female sex.”

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape among the nobility, which was radically different from the values and worldview of the majority of representatives of other classes.

Peter I in 1709. Drawing from the mid-19th century.

Education

Peter clearly recognized the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death; most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

The main reason for the administrative reforms of Peter I was his desire to build an absolutist model of monarchy, when all the key levers of government were in the hands of the tsar and his closest advisers.

Local government reforms - in brief

Provincial (regional) reform

Provincial reform of Peter I the Great

The transformations were carried out in two stages:

first stage (1708-1714) was aimed primarily at improving the quality of service to the army - the corresponding military units and shipyards were assigned to the created 8 (by 1714 there were already 11) provinces;
second stage (1719-1721) introduced a three-tier structure: province-province-district, strengthening the vertical of power, police supervision and increasing the efficiency of taxation.

Urban reform

first stage (1699) began with the establishment of the Burmister Chamber (Town Hall), under whose subordination the zemstvo huts were transferred, and the main function became the collection of taxes (instead of the governor);

second stage (1720) marked by the creation of the Chief Magistrate. A division of cities into categories was introduced, and residents into categories and guilds. The magistrate, in its administrative level, corresponded to the collegiums and was subordinate to the Senate.

Central government reforms - in brief

The preparatory stage for the reform of central management can be considered the organization Near office and gradual loss of influence Boyar Duma(last mention in 1704), whose function begins to be fulfilled Ministerial Council. All senior positions in the government bodies created by Peter I are occupied by people loyal to him and personally responsible for the decisions made.

Creation of the Governing Senate

March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the king during the war. The Senate was completely under the control of the Tsar; it was a collegial body (decisions made by members of the Senate had to be unanimous), whose members were appointed by Peter I personally. On February 22, 1711, for additional supervision of officials during the Tsar's absence, the post of fiscal was created.

Creation of Boards

Collegium system

From 1718 to 1726 the creation and development of executive management bodies took place - Collegiums, the purpose of which Peter I saw was to replace the outdated system of orders, which were overly clumsy and duplicating their own functions. The collegiums absorbed orders and relieved the Senate of the burden of deciding small and insignificant issues. The creation of the collegium system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions and uniform standards of activity significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Publication of the General Regulations

March 10, 1720 General Regulations was published and signed by Peter I. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters and an appendix with an interpretation of the foreign words included in it. The regulations approved the collegial (unanimous) method of decision-making by the boards, determined the procedure for discussing cases, the organization of office work, and the relationship of the boards with the Senate and local authorities.

Creation of the Holy Synod

February 5, 1721 was established "Holy Governing Synod"(Theological College). The reason for its creation was the desire of Peter I to integrate the Church into the mechanism of the state, limit influence and strengthen control over its activities. All members of the Synod signed the Spiritual Regulations and personally swore allegiance to the Tsar. To protect the interests of the tsar and additional control, the position of chief prosecutor was created under the Synod.

The result of the reforms of the state apparatus under Peter I was a broad structure administrative bodies, some of which duplicated each other’s functions, but in general were more mobile in terms of solving emerging problems. You can see a schematic representation of government and management bodies in the table on the side.

Military reforms - briefly

The main point The military reforms undertaken by Peter I consisted of five directions:

Introduction from 1705 of regular recruitment into the land and naval forces - conscription for tax-paying classes with lifelong service;
Rearmament of the army and development of the military industry- construction of factories for the production of weapons, textile factories, metalworking, etc.;
Increasing the efficiency of military command and control- edition regulatory documents(statutes, articles, instructions), division of command of troops by type, creation of separate ministries for the army and navy (Military and Admiralty boards);
Creation of a fleet and related infrastructure- construction of shipyards, ships, training of military naval specialists;
Development of a military school- opening of specialized educational institutions for training officers and new military formations: engineering, mathematics, navigation and other schools.

The results of military reform were impressive. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand, and irregular troops up to 110 thousand. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships, 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.

Economic reforms of Peter I the Great - briefly

The reason for the economic reforms of Peter I was the need to strengthen the provision of the army with supplies and weapons for waging the Northern War, as well as the significant lag of the Russian Kingdom in the industrial sector from the leading European powers.

Currency reform

Without changing appearance silver wire kopecks, starting from 1694, dates began to be put on them, and then the weight was reduced to 0.28 g. Since 1700, the minting of small change copper coins began - money, half coins, half half coins, i.e. denominations smaller than a penny.

The main units of the new monetary system were the copper kopeck and the silver ruble. Monetary system has been converted to decimal(1 ruble = 100 kopecks = 200 money), and the process of minting coins was modernized - a screw press began to be used. To meet the needs of the economy, Peter I created five mints.

Tax reform

First census population 1710 was based on the household principle of accounting for taxes and revealed that peasants united their households, surrounding them with a single fence, in order to evade paying taxes.

By decree of November 26, 1718 Peter I began the second census, according to the rules of which not the number of households was recorded, but specific male persons. (capita census)

Introduction of the poll tax

After the end of the census in 1722(5,967,313 males were counted), calculations were made of the fees sufficient to support the army. Eventually capitation tax has been installed in 1724 - from each soul (i.e., every man, boy, old man belonging to the tax-paying classes) was supposed to pay 95 kopecks.

Reforms in industry and trade

Monopolies and protectionism

Peter I approved in 1724 protective customs tariff prohibiting or limiting with high duties the import foreign goods and semi-finished products. This was primarily due to the low quality of domestic products, which could not stand up to competition. Private and state monopolies were organized within the country - pharmaceutical, wine, salt, flax, tobacco, bread, etc. At the same time, state monopolies served to replenish the treasury from the sale of popular products, and private monopolies served to accelerate the development of specific branches of production and trade.

Social reforms - briefly

In the fields of education, healthcare and science

Most educational institutions were created due to the need to train new types of troops or their own officers for the army and navy. Simultaneously with the organization of various specialized schools (engineering, mining, artillery, medical, etc.), children of nobles were sent abroad, and scientists and engineers were invited from Europe, who were obliged to train the most capable people in production. Compulsory primary education met resistance - in 1714, simultaneously with the creation of digital schools, Peter I was forced to issue a decree prohibiting young nobles who had not received an education from marrying.

Medicine needed state support, and the state needed field surgeons - so the founding of the Moscow Hospital in 1706 solved two problems at once. To provide public and private pharmacies (which were given a monopoly on pharmacy activities) with the necessary medicinal herbs, a vegetable garden was founded on Aptekarsky Island in 1714.

In 1724, Peter I signed a decree establishing the Academy of Sciences and Arts, which laid the foundation for all future Russian science. Foreign specialists were invited to work in the new institution, and until 1746, most of the academicians were foreigners.

Cultural reforms

The culture of the Russian people can be quite clearly divided into the time before Peter I and after him - so strong was his desire to instill European values and change the established traditions of the Russian kingdom. The main reason and source of inspiration for the tsar’s cultural transformations was his Great Embassy - a trip to Europe in 1697-1698.

The key innovations were:

Permission to sell and use tobacco
New rules in clothing and appearance
New chronology and calendar
Opening of the Kunstkamera (Museum of Curiosities)
Attempts to organize a public theater (comedy temple)

Estate reforms

The class transformations of Peter I corresponded to his desire to add responsibilities to all subordinates (without distinction of origin), even to the nobility. In general, the period of his reign is characterized by the tightening of serfdom, the weakening of the influence of the church and the provision of new rights and privileges to the nobles. Separately, it is worth highlighting the emergence of such a social elevator as the opportunity to receive nobility for achieving certain ranks of civil and military service, according to Tables of ranks

Church reform

The main essence of the church reforms undertaken by Peter I was elimination of autonomy and integration of the institution of the church into the state apparatus, with all the accompanying characteristics - reporting, limited number of personnel, etc. The ban on the election of a patriarch in 1700 and the establishment of a replacement in 1721 of the Holy Synod marked another stage in the formation of absolutism as a form of government of the state - before the Patriarch was perceived as practically equal to the king and had great influence on ordinary people.

Results and results of reforms

Modernization of the administrative apparatus and building a rigid vertical of power in accordance with the concept of an absolutist monarchy.
Introduction of a new principle of administrative-territorial division (province-province-district) and changes in the principle of the basic tax (capitation instead of household tax).
Creation of a regular army and navy, infrastructure for providing military units with provisions, weapons and quarters.
Introduction of European traditions into the culture of Russian society.
The introduction of general primary education, the opening of specialized schools for the training of various military and civilian specialists, the establishment of the Academy of Sciences.
The enslavement of the peasantry, the weakening of the church, the definition of additional responsibilities for all classes and the provision of the opportunity to receive the nobility for merit in the service of the sovereign.
Development various types industry - mining, processing, textile, etc.

Introduction

1. Russia at the end of the 17th century. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

1.1The situation of Russia at the end of the 17th century

2Internal prerequisites for transformation

3Reasons for the need for reforms

4The need for access to the seas

2.Reforms of Peter I

2.1 Public administration reforms

2 Administrative and local government reforms

3 Military reforms

4 Social policy

5 Economic reforms

6 Financial and fiscal reforms

7 Church reform

3. Results and significance of Peter’s reforms

3.1 General assessment of Peter’s reforms

2 The significance and price of reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

I believe that this topic is very relevant today. Currently, Russia is going through a period of reform of economic and socio-political relations, accompanied by contradictory results and polar opposite assessments in various layers of Russian society. This causes heightened interest in reforms in the past, their origins, content and results. One of the most turbulent and most fruitful reform eras is the era of Peter I. Therefore, there is a desire to delve into the essence, the nature of the processes of another period of breaking up society, to study in more detail the mechanisms of change in a huge state.

For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the meaning of Peter’s reforms, but regardless of the point of view of one or another researcher, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of the most important stages history of Russia, thanks to which all of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. In Russian history it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of his interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved.

In my work, I would like to consider in detail the reasons for the reforms of Peter I, the reforms themselves, and also highlight their significance for the country and society.

1. Russia at the end of the 17th century. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

.1 Russia's position at the end 17th century

In the countries of Western Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries, important historical events took place - the Dutch bourgeois revolution (XVI century) and the English bourgeois revolution (XVII century).

Bourgeois relations were established in Holland and England, and both of these countries were far ahead of other states in their socio-economic and political development. Many European countries were backward compared to Holland and England, but Russia was the most backward.

The reasons for Russia's historical backwardness were due to the fact that:

1.During the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the principalities saved Western Europe from the hordes of Batu, but they themselves were ruined and fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde khans for more than 200 years.

2.The process of overcoming feudal fragmentation due to the vast territory that was to be unified took about three hundred years. Thus, the unification process took place in Russian lands much more slowly than, for example, in England or France.

.Trade, industrial, cultural and, to a certain extent, diplomatic ties between Russia and Western countries were complicated due to Russia’s lack of convenient sea harbors in the Baltic.

.Russia at the end of the 17th century had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the century, which devastated a number of regions in the north-west, south-west and center of the country.

.2 Internal prerequisites for transformation

In the 17th century As a result of the activities of the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty, the socio-economic and political crisis of the state and society caused by the events of the time of troubles was overcome. At the end of the 17th century, a trend towards Europeanization of Russia emerged, and the prerequisites for future Peter’s reforms were outlined:

The tendency towards the absolutization of supreme power (liquidation of the activities of Zemsky Sobors as estate-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word “autocrat” in the royal title; registration of national legislation (Conciliar Code of 1649). Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of new articles (in 1649-1690, 1535 decrees were adopted supplementing the Code);

Activation of foreign policy and diplomatic activities of the Russian state;

Reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of foreign regiments, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps among districts;

Reform and improvement of financial and tax systems;

The transition from craft production to manufacturing using elements of hired labor and simple mechanisms;

Development of domestic and foreign trade (adoption of the “Charter of Customs” in 1653, “New Trade Charter” of 1667);

The demarcation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon’s church reform; the emergence of Nazis nal-conservative and Westernizing movements.

.3 Reasons for the need for reforms

reform politics diplomatic

When speaking about the reasons for Peter's reforms, historians usually refer to the need to overcome Russia's lag behind the advanced countries of the West. But, in fact, not a single class wanted to catch up with anyone, did not feel the internal need to reform the country in a European manner. This desire was present only among a very small group of aristocrats, led by Peter I himself. The population did not feel the need for changes, especially such radical ones. Why then did Peter “raise Russia on its hind legs”?

The origins of Peter's reforms must be sought not in the internal needs of the Russian economy and social strata, but in the foreign policy sphere. The impetus for reforms was the defeat of Russian troops near Narva (1700) at the beginning of the Northern War. After it, it became obvious that if Russia wants to act as an equal partner of the main world powers, it must have an army of the European type. It could only be created by carrying out large-scale military reform. And this, in turn, required the development of its own industry (to provide troops with weapons, ammunition, and uniforms). It is known that manufactories, factories and factories cannot be built without large investments. The government could receive money for them from the population only through fiscal reform. People are needed to serve in the army and work in enterprises. To provide the required number of “military ranks” and labor, it was necessary to rebuild the social structure of society. All these transformations were able to carry out only a powerful and effective apparatus of power, which did not exist in pre-Petrine Russia. Such tasks faced Peter I after the military disaster of 1700. All that remained was either to capitulate or reform the country in order to win in the future.

Thus, the need for military reform that arose after the defeat at Narva turned out to be the link that seemed to pull the entire chain of transformations along with it. All of them were subordinated to a single goal - strengthening Russia’s military potential, turning it into a world power, without whose permission “not a single cannon in Europe could fire.”

In order to put Russia on a par with developed European countries, it was necessary:

1.To achieve access to the seas for trade and cultural communication with European countries (in the north - to the coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic; in the south - to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas).

2.Develop national industry faster.

.Create a regular army and navy.

.Reform the state apparatus, which did not meet new needs.

.Catch up on lost time in the field of culture.

The struggle to solve these state problems unfolded during the 43-year reign of Peter I (1682-1725).

.4 The need for access to the seas

A distinctive feature of Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century was its high activity. The almost continuous wars waged by Peter I were aimed at solving the main national task - Russia's acquisition of the right to access the sea. Without solving this problem, it was impossible to overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country and eliminate the political and economic blockade on the part of Western European states and Turkey. Peter I sought to strengthen the international position of the state and increase its role in international relations. It was a time of European expansion, the seizure of new territories. In the current situation, Russia had to either become a dependent state, or, having overcome the backlog, enter the category of Great Powers. It was for this that Russia needed access to the seas: shipping routes were faster and safer, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in every possible way prevented the passage of merchants and specialists to Russia. The country was cut off from both the northern and southern seas: Sweden prevented access to the Baltic Sea, Turkey held the Azov and Black Seas. Initially foreign policy Peter's government had the same direction as in the previous period. This was Russia’s movement to the south, the desire to eliminate the Wild Field, which arose in very ancient times as a result of the onset of the nomadic world. It blocked Russia’s path to trade in the Black and Mediterranean Seas and impeded the country’s economic development. A manifestation of this “southern” foreign policy line were Vasily Golitsyn’s campaigns in the Crimea and Peter’s “Azov” campaigns. The wars with Sweden and Turkey cannot be considered as alternatives - they were subordinated to one goal: to establish large-scale trade between the Baltic and Central Asia.

2. Reforms of Peter I

In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715 (V.I. Rodenkov, A.B. Kamensky).

At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War. They were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.

At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.

Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The main goal reforms were Russia's acquisition of the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically.

.1 Public administration reforms

Initially, Peter tried to make the old order system more effective. The Reitarsky and Inozemsky orders were merged into the Military. The Streletsky order was liquidated, and Preobrazhensky was established in its place. In the early years, the collection of money for the Northern War was carried out by the Town Hall, Izhora offices, and the Monastery Prikaz. The Mining Department was in charge of the mining industry.

However, the competence of orders was increasingly reduced, and the fullness of political life was concentrated in the Near Office of Peter, formed in 1701. After the founding of the new capital, St. Petersburg (1703), the term “office” began to be applied to the St. Petersburg branches of the Moscow orders, to which all administrative prerogatives were transferred. As this process developed, the Moscow order system was liquidated.

The reforms also affected other central government bodies. Since 1704, the Boyar Duma no longer met. No one dispersed it, but Peter simply stopped giving new boyar ranks, and the Duma members died out physically. Since 1701, its role was actually played by the Council of Ministers, which met in the Near Chancellery.

In 1711 the Senate was established. At first it existed as a temporary governing body, created during the absence of the sovereign (Peter was on the Prut campaign). But upon the return of the tsar, the Senate was retained as a government institution that acted as the highest court, dealt with financial and fiscal problems, and recruited the army. The Senate was also in charge of personnel appointments to almost all institutions. In 1722, the prosecutor's office was created under him - the highest control body that monitored compliance with the laws. Closely connected with the prosecutor's office was the special position of fiscals, introduced back in 1711 - professional informers who controlled the work of government institutions. Above them stood the chief fiscal, and in 1723 the post of fiscal general was established, who led the entire network of “sovereign eyes and ears.”

In 1718 - 1722 Collegiums were established based on the model of the Swedish government (a remarkable fact: Russia waged a war with Sweden and at the same time “borrowed” the concept of some reforms from it). Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Board of Foreign Affairs - external relations, the Military Board - the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Board - the fleet, the Chamber Board - revenue collection, the State Office Board - state expenditures, the Revision Board - control over budget execution, The Justic Collegium was in charge of legal proceedings, the Patrimonial Collegium was in charge of noble land ownership, the Manufactory Collegium was in charge of industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium, and the Commerce Collegium was in charge of trade. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated.

The new authorities were based on the principle of cameralism. Its main components were: a functional organization of management, collegiality in institutions with a precise definition of the responsibilities of each, the introduction of a clear system of clerical work, uniformity of bureaucratic staff and salaries. Structural divisions collegiums were offices that included offices.

The work of officials was regulated by special rules - regulations. In 1719 - 1724 General Regulations were drawn up - a law that determined general principles functioning of the state apparatus, which had a very great resemblance with military regulations. For employees, an oath of allegiance to the sovereign was even introduced, similar to a military oath. The responsibilities of each person were recorded on a special paper called “position”.

In new government institutions Belief in the omnipotence of circulars and instructions quickly established itself, and the cult of bureaucratic orders flourished. It is Peter I who is considered the father of the Russian bureaucracy.

2.2 Administrative and local government reforms

Pre-Petrine Russia was divided into counties. In 1701, Peter took the first step towards administrative reform: a special district was established from Voronezh and the recently conquered Azov. In 1702 - 1703 a similar territorial unit arose in Ingria, annexed during the Northern War. In 1707 - 1710 provincial reform began. The country was divided into large lands called provinces. In 1708, Russia was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. Each of them was ruled by a governor appointed by the king. The provincial chancellery and the following officials were subordinate to him: chief commandant (in charge of military affairs), chief commissar (in charge of collecting taxes) and landricht (responsible for legal proceedings).

The main goal of the reform was to streamline the financial and fiscal system to meet the needs of the army. The registration of regiments was introduced in the provinces. Each regiment had Kriegs commissars who were in charge of collecting funds for their units. A special Kriegs-Commissioner office, headed by the Ober-Stern-Kriegs-Commissar, was established under the Senate.

The provinces turned out to be too large for effective management. At first they were divided into districts, headed by commandants. However, these territorial units were also too cumbersome. Then in 1712 - 1715. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by chief commandants, and the provinces into districts (counties) under the command of zemstvo commissars.

In general, the local government system and administrative structure was borrowed by Peter from the Swedes. However, he excluded its lowest component - the Swedish zemstvo (Kirchspiel). The reason for this is simple: the tsar had disdain for the common people and was sincerely convinced that “in the district from the peasantry smart people No".

Thus, a single, centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of governance emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. General Regulations of 1720 Introduced a unified system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

2.3 Military reforms

New types of troops were established in the army: engineering and garrison units, irregular troops, and in the southern regions - land militia (militia of single-dvoriers). Now the infantry consisted of grenadier regiments, and the cavalry - of dragoon regiments (dragoons were soldiers who fought both on foot and on horseback).

The structure of the army has changed. The tactical unit was now the regiment. Brigades were formed from regiments, and divisions from brigades. Headquarters were established to control the troops. A new system of military ranks was introduced, the highest ranks of which were occupied by generals: general from infantry (in the infantry), general from cavalry and general-feldtzeichmeister (in artillery).

A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers.

Inner life The army was regulated by special documents - the “Military Charter” (1716) and the “Naval Charter” (1720). Their main idea was strict centralization of command, military discipline and organization: so that “the commander would be loved and feared by the soldier.” The “Military Article” (1715) determined the military criminal process and the system of criminal penalties.

The most important part of the reforms was the creation by Peter of Russia of a powerful navy. The first warships, built in 1696 for the Second Azov Campaign in Voronezh, along the river. Don descended into the Sea of Azov. Since 1703, the construction of warships in the Baltic has been going on (the Olonets shipyard was opened on the Svir River). In total, during the years of Peter's reign, more than 1,100 ships were built, including the largest 100-gun battleship, Peter I and II, laid down in 1723.

In general, the military reforms of Peter I had positive influence on the development of Russian military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.

.4 Social policy

The goal of Peter’s reforms was “the creation of the Russian people.” The reforms were accompanied by large-scale social disruption, a “shake-up” of all classes, often very painful for society.

Dramatic changes occurred among the nobility. Peter physically destroyed the Duma aristocracy - he stopped making new appointments to the Boyar Duma, and the Duma ranks died out. Most of the service people “according to their fatherland” were turned into nobility (as the nobility was called under Peter). Some of the service people “according to the fatherland” in the south of the country and almost all the service people “according to the device” became state peasants. At the same time, a transitional category of odnodvortsy arose - personally free people, but owning only one yard.

The goal of all these transformations was to consolidate the nobility into a single class bearing state duties (in 1719 - 1724 the single-dvorets were rewritten and subject to poll tax). It is not for nothing that some historians even talk about the “enslavement of the nobility” by Peter I. The main task was to force the aristocrats to serve the Fatherland. To do this, it was necessary to deprive the nobility of material independence. In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued. Now the local form of land ownership was eliminated, only the patrimonial form remained, but the patrimonial form was henceforth called an estate. Only the eldest son received the right to inherit the land. All the rest found themselves landless, deprived of means of subsistence, and had the opportunity to choose only one life path- enter the public service.

However, this was not enough, and in the same 1714 a decree was issued that a nobleman could acquire property only after 7 years of military service, or 10 civil service, or 15 years of being a merchant. Persons who were not in public service could never become owners. If a nobleman refused to enter the service, his estate was immediately confiscated. The most unusual measure was the ban on noble children marrying until they had learned the sciences necessary for service.

The service introduced a new criterion for the nobles: the principle of personal service. In its clearest form it is expressed in the “Table of Ranks” (1722 - 1724). Now at the core career growth there was a rule of gradual climb up the career ladder from rank to rank. All ranks were divided into four categories: military, naval, civilian and court. Those who reached the 8th grade received hereditary nobility (this corresponded to approximately 10 years of service and the ranks of major, chief fiscal, chief secretary of the college.

"Table of ranks."

ClassesMilitary ranksCivil ranksCourt ranksNavalLandIAdmiral GeneralGeneralissimo Field MarshalChancellor (State Secretary) Actual Privy Councilor IIAdmiralGeneral of Artillery General of Cavalry General of InfantryActual Privy Councilor Vice-ChancellorOber Chamberlain Ober Schenck IIIVice Admiral Lieutenant General Privy Councilor Chamberlain IVRear AdmiralMajor GeneralActual State CouncilorChamberlain VCaptain-CommanderBrigadierState Councilor VICaptain 1st Rank Colonel Collegiate Advisor Chamber Fourier VIICaptain 2nd RankLieutenant Colonel Court Advisor VIIIFleet Lieutenant Commander Artillery Captain 3rd Rank Major Collegiate Assessor IXArtillery captain-lieutenantCaptain (in the infantry) Rotmister (in the cavalry) Titular councilor Chamber cadet XFleet Lieutenant Artillery Lieutenant Staff Captain Staff Captain Collegiate Secretary XISenate Secretary XIIFleet midshipmanLieutenantGovernment SecretaryValet XIIIArtillery ConstableLieutenantSenate Registrar XIVEnsign (in the infantry) Cornet (in the cavalry) Collegiate registrar

Theoretically, any personally free person could now rise to become an aristocrat. On the one hand, this made it possible for people from the lower strata to climb the social ladder. On the other hand, the autocratic power of the monarch and the role of state bureaucratic institutions sharply increased. The nobility turned out to be dependent on the bureaucracy and the arbitrariness of the authorities, who controlled any advancement up the career ladder.

At the same time, Peter I made sure that the nobility, although serving, was a higher, privileged class. In 1724, a ban was issued for non-nobles to enter the clerical service. The highest bureaucratic institutions were staffed exclusively by nobles, which made it possible for the gentry to remain the ruling class of Russian society.

Simultaneously with the consolidation of the nobility, Peter carried out the consolidation of the peasantry. He eliminated various categories of peasants: in 1714 the division of peasants into local and patrimonial peasants was abolished, and during the church reforms there were no church and patriarchal peasants. Now there were serfs (owners), palace and state peasants.

An important social policy measure was the elimination of the institution of servitude. Even during the recruitment of troops for the Second Azov Campaign, the slaves who signed up for the regiments were declared free. In 1700 this decree was repeated. Thus, by enlisting as a soldier, a slave could free himself from his owner. When conducting a census of the population, slaves were ordered to “write in salary,” i.e. in legal terms, they became closer to the peasants. This meant the destruction of servitude as such. On the one hand, Peter’s merit in eliminating slavery in Russia, a legacy of the early Middle Ages, is undoubted. On the other hand, this hit the serf peasantry: the lordly plowing increased sharply. Before that, the master's lands were mainly cultivated by arable serfs, but now this duty fell on the peasants, and the size of the corvee approached the limits physical capabilities person.

The same harsh policies were applied to the townspeople. In addition to the sharp increase in tax burden, Peter I actually attached the residents of the town to the cities. In 1722, a decree was issued on the return of all fugitive draft traders to the settlements and on the prohibition of unauthorized departure from the settlement. In 1724 - 1725 introduced in the country passport system. Without a passport, a person could not move around Russia.

The only category of townspeople that escaped attachment to the cities was the merchant class, but the trading class also underwent unification. On the morning of January 16, 1721, all Russian merchants woke up as members of guilds and workshops. The first guild included bankers, industrialists and wealthy merchants, the second - small entrepreneurs and merchants, retailers, and artisans.

Under Peter I, the merchants bore the brunt of the state's fiscal oppression. During the census, officials, in order to increase the number of the tax-paying population, called “merchants” even those who had not the slightest relation to them. As a result, a large number of fictitious “merchants” appeared in the census books. And the total amount of taxes levied on the city community was calculated precisely according to the number of wealthy citizens, which merchants were automatically considered to be. These taxes were distributed among the townspeople “according to strength”, i.e. the bulk of the contribution for their impoverished fellow countrymen was made by real merchants and rich townspeople. This order interfered with the accumulation of capital and slowed down the development of capitalism in the cities.

Thus, under Peter, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class principle, regulated by state legislation, was clearly visible.

.5 Economic reforms

Peter was the first in Russian history to create a system government regulation economy. It was carried out through bureaucratic institutions: the Berg College, the Manufacturer College, the Commerce College and the General Magistrate.

A state monopoly was introduced on a number of goods: in 1705 - on salt, which gave the treasury 100% of the profit, and on tobacco (800% of the profit). Also, based on the principle of mercantilism, a monopoly was established on foreign trade bread and raw materials. By 1719, at the end of the Northern War, most monopolies were abolished, but they played their role - they ensured war time mobilization of the state's material resources. However, private domestic trade was damaged swipe. The merchants found themselves excommunicated from the most profitable branches of commercial activity. In addition, fixed prices were introduced for a number of goods supplied by merchants to the treasury, which deprived merchants of the opportunity to receive income from their sales.

Peter widely practiced the forced formation of cargo flows. In 1713, trade through Arkhangelsk was prohibited, and goods were sent through St. Petersburg. This almost led to a halt in commercial operations, since St. Petersburg was deprived of the necessary trading infrastructure (exchanges, warehouses, etc.). Then the government softened its ban, but according to the decree of 1721, trade duties on trade through Arkhangelsk became three times higher than when transporting goods through the Baltic capital.

St. Petersburg generally played a fatal role in the fate of the Russian merchants: in 1711 - 1717. The best merchant families of the country were forcibly sent there. This was done to economically strengthen the capital. But few of them managed to establish their business in a new place. This led to the fact that the “strong” merchant class in Russia was halved. Some famous names have disappeared forever.

The centers of trade were Moscow, Astrakhan, Novgorod, as well as large fairs - Makaryevskaya on the Volga, Irbitskaya in Siberia, Svinskaya in Ukraine and smaller fairs and markets at the crossroads of trade roads. Peter's government paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main form of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was underway: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolzhsky, Ladoga, and work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

After 1719, the state somewhat weakened mobilization measures and its intervention in economic life. Not only were monopolies abolished, but measures were also taken to encourage free enterprise. A special Berg privilege is established for the mining industry. The practice of transferring manufactures to private individuals is spreading. However, the basics of government regulation remained. Enterprises still had to primarily fulfill huge government orders at fixed prices. This ensured the growth of Russian industry, which enjoyed state support (during the years of Peter’s reign, more than 200 new manufactories and factories were built), but at the same time, the Russian industrial economy was initially devoid of competition, focused not on the market, but on government orders. This gave rise to stagnation - why improve quality, expand production, if the authorities will still buy the goods at a guaranteed price?

Therefore, the assessment of the results of Peter I’s economic policy cannot be unambiguous. Yes, a Western, bourgeois-style industry was created, which allowed the country to become an equal participant in all political processes in Europe and the world. But the similarities with the West affected only the technological sphere. Socially, Russian manufactories and factories did not know bourgeois relations. Thus, Peter, to a certain extent, solved the technical problems of the bourgeois revolution without its social components, without creating classes of bourgeois society. This circumstance led to serious imbalances in economic development countries that took many decades to overcome.

Most a shining example A similar economic “perversion” is the establishment in 1721 of “possession manufactories” - enterprises in which serfs assigned to a given manufactory worked instead of hired workers. Peter created an economic monster unknown to the capitalist mode of production. According to all market laws, slaves cannot work in factories instead of hired workers. Such an enterprise is simply not viable. But in Peter’s Russia it existed safely, benefiting from the support of the state.

.6 Financial and fiscal reforms

Under Peter I, these areas were subordinated to the same tasks: building a strong state, a strong army, expropriation of estates, which caused a sharp increase in duties and taxes. This policy solved its problem - mobilizing funds - but led to an overexertion of the state's forces.

Another goal of fiscal reforms was to create a material base for maintaining the army in peacetime. At first, the government planned to establish something like labor armies from units returning from the fronts of the Northern War. But this project was not implemented. But permanent conscription was introduced. The soldiers settled in the villages in proportions: one infantryman for 47 peasants, one cavalryman for 57 peasants. For the first time in Russian history, the country was covered by a network of military garrisons feeding off the local population.

However, the most effective way to replenish the treasury was the introduction of the poll tax (1719 - 1724). From 1718 to 1722, a population census (revision) was carried out. Special officials collected information about potential taxpayers and entered them into special books - “revision tales.” The rewritten people were called “revision souls.” If before Peter taxes were paid from the yard (household), now every “revision soul” had to pay them.

.7 Church reform

The measures of Peter I in this area were distinguished by the same characteristics: mobilization and expropriation of church resources for the needs of the state. The main task of the authorities was to destroy the church as an independent social force. The Emperor was especially wary of an alliance between the anti-Petrine opposition and Orthodox priests. Moreover, there were rumors among the people that the reformer king was the Antichrist or his forerunner. In 1701, a ban was even issued on keeping paper and ink in monastery cells to stop the writing and distribution of anti-government works.

Patriarch Andrian died in 1700. Peter did not appoint a new one, but established the position of “locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.” It was occupied by Metropolitan of Ryazan and Murom Stefan Yavorsky. In 1701, it was restored, liquidated in the 1670s. A monastic order that regulated issues of church land ownership, and monks were attached to their monasteries. A standard of funds allocated in monasteries for the maintenance of the brethren was introduced - 10 rubles and 10 quarters of bread per year for one monk. Everything else was confiscated to the treasury.

The ideology of further church reform was developed by Pskov Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich. In 1721, he created the Spiritual Regulations, the purpose of which was to “correct the clergy.” The patriarchate in Russia was liquidated. A Spiritual College was established, later renamed the Synod. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, management of educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 highest church hierarchs appointed by the king, to whom they took an oath. For the first time in Russian history, a secular bureaucratic institution was placed at the head of a religious organization. Control over the activities of the Synod was carried out by the Chief Prosecutor, and a specially created staff of church fiscals - inquisitors - was subordinate to him. In 1721 - 1722 The parish clergy was placed on a capitation salary and rewritten - an unprecedented case in world practice, so that tax duties were assigned to clergy. States were established for priests. The following proportion was established: one priest per 100 - 150 parishioners. The “superfluous” were turned... into serfs. Overall, the clergy was reduced by one third as a result of these reforms.

However, at the same time, Peter I exalted that side of church life that met the tasks of state building. Going to church was seen as a civic duty. In 1716, a decree was issued on compulsory confession, and in 1722, a decree was issued on violating the secret of confession if a person confessed to state crimes. Now priests were obliged to inform on their parishioners. The clergy widely practiced anathemas and sermons “on occasion” - thus, the church became an instrument of the state’s propaganda machine.

At the end of Peter's reign, a monastic reform was being prepared. It was not carried out due to the death of the emperor, but its direction is indicative. Peter hated the black clergy, claiming that “monks are parasites.” It was planned to prohibit monastic vows for all categories of the population except retired soldiers. This showed Peter's utilitarianism: he wanted to turn the monasteries into giant nursing homes. At the same time, it was intended to retain a certain number of monks to serve veterans (one for every 2 to 4 disabled people). The rest faced the fate of serfs, and the nuns - work in possession manufactories.

3. Results and significance of Peter's reforms

.1 General assessment of reforms

Regarding Peter's reforms, starting with the dispute between Slavophiles and Westerners in the 19th century, there are two points of view in the scientific literature. Supporters of the first (S. M. Solovyov, N. G. Ustryalov, N. I. Pavlenko, V. I. Buganov, V. V. Mavrodin, etc.) point to the undoubted successes of Russia: the country has strengthened its international position, built industry , army, society, culture of a new, European type. The reforms of Peter I determined the appearance of Russia for many decades to come.

Scientists who share a different point of view (V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. V. Anisimov, etc.) ask the question of the price that was paid for these transformations. Indeed, in 1725, the commission of P.I. Yaguzhinsky, which audited the results of the reforms, came to the conclusion that they must be stopped immediately and moved to stabilization. The country is overextended and overextended. The population could not withstand fiscal oppression. At the end of the reign of Peter I, famine began in a number of districts due to unbearable exactions. This group of historians also raise objections to the methods of implementing reforms: they were carried out “from above”, through strict centralization, mobilization of Russian society and attracting it to the service of the state. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Peter’s decrees “as if written with a whip.”

There was no support for reforms in society: not a single social layer, not a single class acted as a bearer of reforms and was not interested in them. The reform mechanism was purely statist. This created serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure, which Russia had to overcome for many years.

3.2 The meaning and price of Peter’s reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire

The reign of Peter I opened in Russian history new period. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Administration and jurisprudence, the army and various social strata of the population were reorganized in a Western manner. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and technical training and science great achievements.

When assessing Peter's reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, it is necessary to take into account the following main trends:

The reforms of Peter I marked the establishment of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country.

In terms of their scale and speed of carrying out the reforms of Peter I, they had no analogues not only in Russian, but also, at least, in European history.

A powerful and contradictory imprint was left on them by the peculiarities of the country’s previous development, extreme foreign policy conditions and the personality of the tsar himself.

Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also in a minimal historical period of time brought it to a qualitatively more high level, turning Russia into a powerful power.

The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population.

Despite the contradictory personality of Peter and his transformations, in Russian history his figure has become a symbol of decisive reformism and selfless service to the Russian state, not sparing either himself or others. Among his descendants, Peter I - practically the only one of the tsars - rightfully retained the title of the Great, granted to him during his lifetime.

Transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century. so grandiose in their consequences that they give reason to talk about pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman.

Contradictory, explained by the peculiarities of that time and personal qualities the figure of Peter the Great constantly attracted the attention of the most prominent writers (M. V. Lomonosov, A. S. Pushkin, A. N. Tolstoy), artists and sculptors (E. Falcone, V. I. Surikov, M. N. Ge, V. A. Serov), theater and film figures (V. M. Petrova, N. K. Cherkasova), composers (A. P. Petrova).

How to evaluate Peter's perestroika? The attitude towards Peter I and his reforms is a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. What is this - a historical feat of the people or measures that doomed the country to ruin after Peter's reforms?

Peter's reforms and their results are extremely contradictory, which is reflected in the works of historians. Most researchers believe that the reforms of Peter I were of outstanding importance in the history of Russia (K. Valishevsky, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, N. I. Kostomarov, E. P. Karpovich, N. N. Molchanov, N. I. Pavlenko and others). On the one hand, the reign of Peter went down in Russian history as a time of brilliant military victories; it was characterized by rapid rates of economic development. This was a period of a sharp leap towards Europe. According to S. F. Platonov, for this purpose Peter was ready to sacrifice everything, even himself and his loved ones. As a statesman, he was ready to exterminate and destroy everything that went against the benefit of the state.

On the other hand, some historians consider the creation of a “regular state” to be the result of the activities of Peter I, i.e. a state that is bureaucratic in nature, based on surveillance and espionage. Authoritarian rule is becoming established, the role of the monarch and his influence on all spheres of life of society and the state are increasing enormously (A. N. Mavrodin, G. V. Vernadsky).

Moreover, researcher Yu. A. Boldyrev, studying the personality of Peter and his reforms, concludes that “Petrine reforms aimed at Europeanizing Russia did not achieve their goal. Peter’s revolutionary spirit turned out to be false, since it was carried out while maintaining the basic principles of the despotic regime, general enslavement.”

The ideal of government for Peter I was a “regular state,” a model similar to a ship, where the captain is the king, his subjects are officers and sailors, acting according to naval regulations. Only such a state, according to Peter, could become an instrument of decisive transformations, the goal of which was to turn Russia into a great European power. Peter achieved this goal and therefore went down in history as a great reformer. But what at the costwere these results achieved?

Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the Streltsy in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region were directed personally against Peter I and not so much against the reforms as against the methods and means of their implementation.

Carrying out the reform of public administration, Peter I was guided by the principles of cameralism, i.e. introduction of bureaucratic principles. A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

Peter I tried to realize his desire to catch up with Europe in economic development through accelerated “manufacturing industrialization,” i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of serf labor. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military, orders, which saved them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.

The result of Peter's reforms was the creation in Russia of the foundations of a state-monopoly industry, feudal and militarized. Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia, by the end of Peter’s reign, was a military-police state with a nationalized monopolized serf-owning economy.

The achievements of the imperial period were accompanied by deep internal conflicts. The main crisis was brewing in the national psychology. The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious and social ideas that were adopted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. Accordingly, a split arose between the top and bottom of society, between intellectuals and the people.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church - at the end of the 17th century. was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its importance, starting from 1700 and until the revolution of 1917. Church reform of the beginning of the 18th century. meant for Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to state ideology. While in Europe the church, separating from the state, became closer to believers, in Russia it moved away from them, becoming an obedient instrument of power, which contradicted Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the entire age-old way of life. It is natural that many contemporaries called Peter I the Tsar-Antichrist.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of Zemsky Sobors (which removed the people from political power) and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

The government was acutely aware of the weakening of contacts with the people after Peter's reforms. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly, as Peter the Great did. And later the concept of prohibitions became familiar. Meanwhile, Western political thought influenced the Europeanized circles of Russian society, which absorbed the ideas of political progress and gradually prepared to fight absolutism. Thus, Peter's reforms set in motion political forces that the government subsequently could not control.

In Petra we can see before us the only example of successful and generally completed reforms in Russia, which determined its further development for almost two centuries. However, it should be noted that the cost of the transformations was prohibitively high: when carrying out them, the tsar did not take into account the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, nor with national traditions, nor with the memory of ancestors.

Conclusion

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in the title of the Russian monarch in 1721 - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to lead this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history. Many historical studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers have assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes even opposite, ways. Peter's contemporaries were already divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continues to this day.

Some experts say that Peter's reforms led to the conservation of the feudal-serf system, violation of individual rights and freedom, which caused further upheavals in the life of the country. Others argue that this is a major step forward on the path of progress, albeit within the framework of a feudal system.

It seems that in the specific conditions of that time, Peter’s reforms were progressive in nature. The objective conditions for the country's development have given rise to adequate measures to reform it. Great A.S. Pushkin most sensitively guessed and understood the essence of that time and the role of Peter in our history. For him, on the one hand, Peter is a brilliant commander and politician, on the other hand, he is an “impatient landowner” whose decrees are “written with a whip.”

The emperor's extraordinary personality and lively mind contributed to the country's dramatic rise and strengthened its position on the world stage. Peter reformed the country based directly on the needs of this time in Russian history: in order to win, you need a strong army and navy - as a result, a large-scale military reform was carried out. To provide the army with weapons, ammunition, uniforms, the development of its own industry, etc. is required. Thus, having carried out a series of reforms, sometimes spontaneous, dictated only by the momentary decision of the emperor, Russia strengthened its international position, built an industry, received a strong army and navy, a society, and a culture of a new type. And, despite the serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure that the country had to overcome for many years, brought to its completion, Peter’s reforms are undoubtedly one of the outstanding periods in the history of our state.

Bibliography

1. Goryainov S.G., Egorov A.A. History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries. A textbook for students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and colleges. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix Publishing House, 1996. - 416 p.

2. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2005. - 560 p.

Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook. Second edition, revised and expanded. - M. “PBOYUL L.V. Rozhnikov", 200. - 528 p.

Filyushkin A.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1801: A manual for universities. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 336 pp.: map.

Http://www.abc-people.com/typework/history/doch-9.htm

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.