Phraseology(gr. phrasis - expression + logos - teaching) - the science of linguistic units that are complex in composition and have a stable character: upside down, get into trouble, the cat cried, carelessly. Phraseologisms, unlike lexical units, have a number of characteristic features.
1 . Phraseologisms Always complex in composition, they are formed by the combination of several components, which, as a rule, have a separate stress, but do not retain the meaning of independent words: rack your brains, blood and milk, ate the dog. (Prepositional-case combinations like under the arm.)
2. Phraseologisms semantically indivisible, they usually have an undifferentiated meaning that can be expressed in one word: spread your mind- "to think" fifth wheel in the cart- "extra", the cat cried- "few". True, this feature is not characteristic of all phraseological units. There are also those that are equated to a whole descriptive expression run aground- "getting into an extremely difficult situation" press all the pedals- “to make every effort to achieve or accomplish something.” Such phraseological units arise as a result of figurative rethinking of free phrases.
3. Phraseologisms in contrast from free phrases characterizes consistency of composition. One or another component of a phraseological unit cannot be replaced with a word close in meaning, while free phrases easily allow such a replacement. For example, instead of the cat cried you cannot say “the cat cried”, “the kitten cried”, “the puppy cried”, instead spread your mind- “scatter with your mind”, “spread your head”; (cf. free phrases: I’m reading a book, I’m looking through a book, I’m studying a book, I’m reading a novel, I’m reading a story, I’m reading a script).
However, some phraseological units have variations: with all my heart - with all my soul, to cast a shadow on a fence - to cast a shadow on a clear day. However, the existence of variants does not mean that in these phraseological units one can arbitrarily update the composition: one cannot say “with all the spirit”, “with all the consciousness”, and also “to cast a shadow on the fence”.
4. Phraseologisms are distinguished reproducibility. Unlike free phrases, which we construct directly in speech, phraseological units are used in ready-made form, the way they are fixed in the language, the way our memory retains them. So, having said bosom, we will definitely say Friend(Not: friend, acquaintance, comrade), nemesis maybe just enemy(Not enemy, pest). This indicates the predictability of the components of phraseological units.
5. Most phraseological units characteristic impermeability of the structure: they cannot arbitrarily include any elements. So, knowing the phraseology look down, we do not have the right to say “lower your gaze,” “lower your gaze even lower,” “lower your sad gaze,” etc. The exception is phraseological units that allow the insertion of some clarifying words inflame passions - inflame fatal passions.
A structural feature of individual phraseological units is the presence of a truncated form along with the full one: go through fire and water (...and copper pipes); drink the cup - drink the bitter cup (to the bottom), measure seven times (...cut once). The reduction in the composition of phraseological units in such cases is explained by the desire to save speech means.
6. Phraseologisms are inherent stability of grammatical form their components: each member of the phraseological combination is reproduced in a certain grammatical form, which cannot be arbitrarily changed. So, you cannot say “to beat the thumb”, “to grind the lasa”, replacing the plural forms baklushi, lasy singular forms, do not use a full adjective instead of a short one in phraseology barefoot etc. Only in special cases are variations of grammatical forms possible in the composition of individual phraseological units: warm your hand - warm your hands; has it been heard - has it been heard.
7. For most phraseological units characteristic strictly fixed word order. For example, you cannot rearrange components in phraseological units everything flows, everything changes; neither light nor dawn; blood with milk. At the same time, verb-type phraseological units, i.e. consisting of a verb and words dependent on it, allow the rearrangement of components: take water into your mouth - take water into your mouth; leave no stone unturned - leave no stone unturned.
The heterogeneity of the structure of a number of phraseological units is explained by the fact that phraseology combines rather motley linguistic material, and the boundaries of some phraseological units are not clearly defined.
Classification of phraseological units according to the degree of semantic indivisibility of components.
Phraseological units of language are very diverse and multifaceted in terms of the meanings they express, structure, degree of semantic indivisibility, functions in speech, etc. In this regard, the question of the classification of phraseological units is quite difficult and sometimes causes contradictory judgments. Thus, the Swiss linguist is considered the founder of the doctrine of phraseological units Charles Bally, who for the first time in the history of linguistics described the specific features of phraseological units and outlined their classification, highlighting free combinations, phraseological groups and phraseological unities within phraseology.
The works of V.V. played a major role in the study of phraseology. Vinogradov, in which he formulated the subject and tasks of phraseology, gave a lexical and semantic description of phraseological units and proposed their classification. V.V. Vinogradov defines three types of phraseological units, basing their distinction on the degree of semantic indivisibility of the components. On this basis, he identified three types of phraseological units: phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.
1. Phraseological conjunctions are such semantically indivisible and grammatically indecomposable stable combinations, the overall meaning of which does not correspond at all to the sum of the meanings of the words that make them up.
Compare the meaning of the expression an eyesore- “to annoy, bother someone” with the meanings of words calluses- “to rub calluses long walk or work" and eye- “organ of vision”. Words as part of a phraseological fusion have lost their independent meanings. This is reflected in the fact that they often contain outdated, sometimes completely incomprehensible words and grammatical forms, for example: sharpen balusters(vabble) kick your ass(sit back), without hesitation(without any doubt, without hesitation); in expression byword(subject of constant conversation) old uniform local case of a noun, etc.
Phraseological fusions also include such expressions, all components of which are understandable and correspond to the morphological structure modern language, but the syntactic connections between these components are unusual. For example: words within expressions are not separated syntactically just a joke(expression of surprise) how to give something to drink(Necessarily), a little light(early), etc. Phraseological conjunctions are similar in function to non-derivative words, in which the base is not motivated by anything.
Adjuncts are sometimes called idioms (Greek idioma - a peculiar expression), they have a high coefficient of idiomaticity and are difficult to translate into another language.
2. Phraseological unities- This such semantically indivisible stable combinations, the general meaning of which is the result of a figurative rethinking of the entire phrase and can be partially motivated by the semantics of the constituent components, i.e. the general meaning of phraseological unities to some extent follows from the totality of the meanings of their constituent words. Yes, the expression callous the tongue(chatter) has the character of a transfer to the direct meanings of the words contained in them calluses And language, and these meanings, to some extent, are still perceived as part of a phraseological unit (compare with the above-mentioned expression an eyesore, in which the words that make it up are actually devoid of independent meanings).
The peculiarity of phraseological unities is in their imagery, metaphor, which, for example, is clearly perceived in the expressions charm one's teeth(distract attention) penny price(worthless), suck from the finger(invent, say without any reason), to go with the flow(act passively, submitting to prevailing views, opinions, etc.).
Many phraseological unities, in contrast to phraseological fusions, are not completely frozen in their expression composition: they may have parts that can be replaced by other words: the other side of the coin and the other side of the coin; a bear stepped on his ear and an elephant stepped on his ear, etc.
3. Phraseological combinations- these are semantically indivisible stable combinations, the general meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of the constituent components, i.e. Phraseological combinations are divisible in meaning, their general meanings consist of the sum of the meanings of the words included in their composition. These phraseological units differ from adhesions and unities primarily in that they contain words that have both free and non-free (phraseologically related) meanings, which are realized only in a certain lexical environment. For example, only in combination with the words matter, question, circumstance, situation the meaning of the word becomes clear ticklish(requiring great caution, careful and tactful surroundings; delicate); with words boil, glow, torment, the meaning of the word is revealed annoyance(to be particularly dissatisfied, angry, tormented, etc.).
Phraseological combinations have almost no free combinations homonymous to them, but individual components can be replaced by synonyms. For example: sudden death - sudden death, bloody nose - break your nose, bitter cold - severe frost, zero attention - no attention.
4. Along with the types considered actually phraseological units are distinguished by the so-called phraseological expressions, “which are not only semantically distinct, but also consist entirely of words with free meanings.” For example, Love for all ages; Seven times measure cut once; Like a squirrel in a wheel; Man in a case. Phraseological expressions include both whole sentences and combinations of words.
Phraseological expressions differ from the units discussed above in that they perform not a nominative, but a communicative function, i.e. are complete units of communication - sentences. Phraseological expressions are usually aphoristic statements or moral and ethical instructions taken from fiction or folklore, for example: There is gunpowder in the flasks(N. Gogol); Yes, but things are still there(I. Krylov); If you like to ride, you also like to carry sleds(Proverb).
Syntactically they are ordinary sentences of the most various types and are subjected to syntactic analysis according to general rules for identifying and evaluating their typological features and structural parts. There is no consensus among linguists on the issue of including or not including such combinations in phraseology. A number of scientists - S.I. Ozhegov, N.N. Amosova, A.V. Kalinin and others, based on the fact that proverbs, sayings and many popular expressions are communicative units equal to a sentence, propose not to include them in phraseology. Others, for example, N.M. Shansky, consider it possible to include these units in phraseology. The basis for classifying proverbs and sayings as phraseology is the commonality of their characteristics: stability component composition, structures and meanings, reproducibility in speech in finished form, common usage.
Considered classification phraseological units is not exhaustive and does not cover the entire diversity of phraseological phenomena. Quite often it is not easy to establish which of the considered types of phraseological units a particular stable expression belongs to. However, this classification of phraseological units, based on their structural and semantic features and taking into account the degree of grammatical and semantic unity of the words included in the composition set expressions, is of greatest interest. Establishment of the main types of phraseological units in accordance with the classification of V.V. Vinogradov currently seems to be the most scientifically substantiated.
Classification of phraseological units in terms of their grammatical structure. The semantic cohesion of words in stable combinations leads to the fact that phraseological units turn out to be syntactically indivisible as part of a sentence in which they act as one member of the sentence. Yes, in sentences He arrived at the scene of the incident random analysis phraseological unit to the preliminary analysis is a circumstance of time (cf. late). As part of sentences, phraseological units can play the role of any member of the sentence.
Based on their correlation with one or another part of speech and the similarity of syntactic functions in a sentence, the following lexico-grammatical categories of phraseological units can be distinguished:
1. Nominal phraseological units. The main component is the noun. Nominal phraseological units mean:
· face: blue stocking(dry pedant, devoid of femininity), Kazan orphan(about someone who pretends to be unhappy, pitiful) grated kalach(about an experienced person who has seen a lot);
· item: Achilles' heel (book: the most vulnerable place), the Forbidden fruit(about something tempting but forbidden), sword of Damocles(book: about constantly threatening danger), etc.
In a sentence, the named phraseological units are used in the syntactic function of the subject, object, and nominal part of the compound predicate.
2. Verb phraseological units the most productive and numerous. The main component is a verb, a gerund. Verbal phraseological units are united by a common meaning of action. For example: get stuck(to be in a difficult situation) lose your head(lose self-control) to twist somebody around one's finger(cleverly deceive someone). In a sentence, the mentioned phraseological units are usually used as a predicate.
3. Adjectival(from Latin adjectivum - adjective) phraseological units denote a qualitative characteristic of a person ( ate little porridge- young, inexperienced or not strong enough; canny- secretive, cunning; not of this world- about a person not adapted to life) and a qualitative characteristic of the subject ( brand new- new, elegant, just sewn; real jam- about something tasty, pleasant). In a sentence, these phraseological units can be used in the syntactic function of an inconsistent definition.
4. Adverbial(from Latin adverbium - adverb) phraseological units have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic of an action ( tirelessly- diligently, tirelessly, without thinking about the consequences; with all my heart- with great difficulty, barely, somehow; what's in the spirit- very fast; through the stump deck- bad, careless) or the degree of quality characteristics ( to the core- with the whole being, entirely, completely; one hundred percent- complete, finished). In a sentence, the named phraseological units act as various circumstances.
5 . Interjective phraseological units serve to express various feelings, emotions, volitional impulses. For example: well well!- colloquial, used to express surprise; damn it!- colloquial, exclamation of surprise, annoyance or indignation; know ours!- colloquial joke, about praising oneself; welcome- an expression of polite invitation.
A number of phraseological units of the Russian language are used in a sentence as addresses or introductory words, i.e. without communication with members of these proposals. Phraseologisms always have a pronounced evaluative connotation. For example: Do you understand, oak head, what have you done?(blunt, stupid man); Do you understand, crazy head, what have you done?(crazy, eccentric person).
Main types of phraseological units of the Russian language
(classification by V. Vinogradov)
Phraseological fusions. Stable combinations, generalized holistic meaning, which are not motivated from the point of view current state vocabulary ( get into trouble, kick ass, without any hesitation, out of nowhere, no matter what).
Etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation for the semantics of modern phraseological fusion.
Phraseological unities- stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the meaning of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning.
Come to a dead end, hit the key, keep the stone in your bosom.
Such phraseological units may have “external homonyms”. To go with the flow- submit to the circumstances of life. We had to float down the river for five days.
Unlike phraseological fusions, phraseological unities are always perceived as metaphors or other artistic tropes.
Stable comparisons: like a bath leaf, like on needles, like a cow’s saddle.
Metaphorical epithets: tinned throat, iron grip.
Hyperboles: golden mountains, a sea of pleasure.
Litotes: with a poppy seed, hold onto a straw.
Paraphrases: far away lands- far. There aren't enough stars in the sky- a narrow-minded person. Oblique fathoms in the shoulders- mighty.
Puns (jokes): donut hole; sleeves from the vest.
Game of antonyms: neither alive nor dead; neither give nor take.
Synonym collision: the mind has gone beyond the mind; around and around.
Phraseological combinations.
Look down(head). There are no fixed phrases in the language "put your hand down", "put your foot down". Verb look down in the meaning of “omit” has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words.
The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only in a strictly defined lexical environment. We say “velvet season”, but we won’t say “velvet month”, “velvet autumn”, “widespread epidemic”, but not “widespread morbidity”, “widespread runny nose”. Phraseological combinations often vary: frown- frown your eyebrows, touch a sense of pride- hurt feelings of pride, win a victory- gain the upper hand. N.M. Shansky supplemented this classification with so-called phraseological expressions.
Happy hours are not observed.
To be or not to be.
The legend is fresh, but hard to believe.
This group of phraseological units also includes catchphrases, proverbs, and sayings.
Synonymy of phraseological units
Phraseologisms that have a similar or identical meaning enter into synonymous relationships: smeared with the same world - two boots of a pair, one field of berries; There are countless numbers - at least a dime a dozen, that the sand of the sea is like uncut dogs. Such phraseological units form synonymous rows, which may also include corresponding lexical synonyms of the same row. Wed: to leave with a nose - to leave in the fool, to deceive, to avert [someone's] eyes, to rub in [someone's] glasses, to put it on the gun and deceive - to fool, to deceive, to bypass, to deceive, to deceive, to deceive.
Phraseological synonyms may differ from each other in stylistic coloring: leave no stone unturned- bookish, inflict reprisals- commonly used cut like a nut- colloquial.
Some phraseological synonyms may repeat some components (if phraseological units are based on different patterns, we have the right to call them synonyms): the game is not worth the candle - the game is not worth the candle; set the bath - set the pepper; chasing dogs means chasing a quitter.
Phraseological units that are similar in meaning but differ in compatibility and are therefore used in different contexts are not synonymized. Thus, the phraseological units “as big as three boxes” and “chickens don’t peck,” although they mean “a lot,” are used in speech differently: the first is combined with the words “to talk, to babble,” the second - only with the word “money.”
Antonymy of phraseological units
Antonymous relations in phraseology are less connected than synonymous ones. The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead(smart) - he won't invent gunpowder.
Polysemy of phraseological units
Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning: stumbling block- obstacle, have your head in the clouds- indulge in fruitless dreams, at first sight- on first impression.
But there are phraseological units that have several meanings.
For example, phraseology wet chicken Can mean:
1) a weak-willed, simple-minded person, a weakling;
2) a person who looks pitiful, depressed, upset about something.
Phraseologism fool around: 1) do nothing;
2) behave frivolously, fool around;
3) do stupid things.
Homonymy of phraseological units
Homonymous relations between phraseological units arise when phraseological units of identical composition appear in completely different meanings: take the floor- speak at a meeting on your own initiative and take the floor(from someone) - to receive from someone a promise, an oath of something. External homonymy of phraseological units and free phrases. Phraseologism soap your neck means - to teach (someone) a lesson, to punish; and the semantics of a free combination soap your neck completely motivated by the meanings of the words included in it: You need to thoroughly soap the child’s neck to wash off all the dirt. In such cases, the context suggests how one or another expression should be understood - as a phraseological unit or as a free combination of words.
Stylistic stratification of Russian phraseology
The stylistic coloring of phraseological units, like words, determines their consolidation in a particular style of speech. At the same time, within phraseology there are 2 groups of phraseological units: 1) commonly used phraseological units that do not have a constant connection with a particular functional style, and 2) functionally fixed phraseological units. The first include, for example, the following: keep your word, keep in mind, from time to time.
The largest stylistic layer of phraseology is colloquial phraseology, which is used primarily in oral communication, and in writing- in fiction: a week without a year, throughout Ivanovo, you can’t spill water, a white crow, like cheese in butter, like Christ in his bosom, like water off a duck’s back etc.
Colloquial phraseology, which is generally close to colloquial, is characterized by greater reduction: straighten your brains, scratch your tongue, tear your throat, turn up your nose. The crudely colloquial phraseology sounds even sharper: The law is not written for fools, no skin, no face, turn up your face, give them a whack in the brain etc. It includes swear words that represent a gross violation of the language norm.
Book phraseology is used in book functional styles. As part of book phraseology, scientific phraseology is distinguished, which consists of compound terms - center of gravity, thyroid, periodic table, matriculation certificate, fulcrum; journalistic - summit, people of goodwill, on the brink of war, mission of friendship; official business - testify, put into operation, effective demand, presumption of innocence, takes place.
There are fewer bookish phraseological units in the Russian language than colloquial ones (their 4,000 phraseological units listed in the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by A.I. Molotkov are only marked “bookish”).
Phraseologisms that came into the language from socio-political, journalistic and fiction also have a bookish connotation: civic duty, serve the fatherland, spirit of the times, cult of personality, on the other side of the barricades, administrative delight, bureaucratic apparatus, election campaign.
All phraseology is divided into 2 groups: neutral, without connotative meanings, and expressively colored. There are few neutral phraseological units: validate ticket, railroad, open meeting, agenda.
A large stylistic layer consists of phraseological units with a bright emotional and expressive coloring, which is due to their metaphorical nature, the use of various expressive means.
Colloquial style phraseological units are colored in familiar, playful, ironic, contemptuous, dismissive tones: neither fish nor fowl, sit in a puddle, only your heels sparkle like snow on your head, like a cow’s saddle, a wet chicken. Books have a sublime, solemn sound: die, burn bridges.
Use of phraseological units in speech:
Phraseologisms, like words, being units of language, serve to convey thoughts and reflect the phenomena of reality. You can select two ranks phraseological units.
First category make up phraseological units that turn out to be the only ones for expressing the phenomena they denote; there are no words or other phraseological units in the language that can convey the same thing; these phraseological units do not have synonyms in the language.
Such phraseological units are compound names like agenda, open meeting, validate ticket, etc., as well as compound terms - eyeball, voltaic arc, tibia, slaked lime. Phraseologisms of this category, as a rule, lack imagery; they do not characterize the phenomenon. They just call him.
Second category constitute phraseological units that have synonyms: either words or phraseological units. In this case, each time the speaker is faced with the task of choosing from a synonymous range of linguistic units the necessary one, the most suitable for a given case, for a given speech situation.
So, for example, it must be said that a person can do everything. About such a person we can say: a craftsman, a jack of all trades, a jack of all trades, a jack of all trades out of boredom, a Swede and a reaper and a dude player. It is easy to notice that each of these units, denoting basically the same thing, has its own semantic shades, its own evaluative features. If they want to talk about this seriously. That's what they'll say handyman, if it's joking - out of boredom, a jack-of-all-trades, a jack-of-all-trades, a reaper, and a player on the pipe.
Not in every case you can use these phraseological units. None of them can be used in business speech, for example, in a description given to a person at work, but all of these phraseological units can be used in ordinary conversation.
Phraseologisms that have the same meaning can be used in different situations. The vast majority of phraseological units of the second category contain images. These phraseological units, as a rule, are not neutral, but have a stylistic connotation - colloquial or bookish. For the most part, they not only designate a certain phenomenon of reality. But they also characterize him and give him a certain assessment.
The sentence usually uses one of the phraseological units of the synonymous series, the most suitable one. However, there is a special technique for using phraseological units, which is called “stringing”. In this case, two or more phraseological units are used side by side, and the second (and others) seem to complement the characteristic, for example:
- But he’s under surveillance! - said the captain reproachfully.
-Heard. However, he believed that the person was improving.
- Is it getting better? - the captain cut off bossily. - I haven’t heard of suchgrated rolls, sort ofshot sparrows were corrected.(K. Fedin).
Most of the phraseological units in the Russian language are figurative in nature. The imagery of phraseological units is based on various techniques, for example:
hyperbola(exaggeration) – there is no living place, you can’t hit it with a gun, an astronomical figure, a fire tower (about a tall man);
litotes(understatement) – with a gulkin nose; quieter than water, lower than the grass; two inches from the pot (an inch is an ancient measure of length equal to 4.4 cm).
To create imagery, objects and phenomena well known to the people are usually used. For example, many phraseological units include the names of animals, and the assessment of these animals, their characteristics are the same as in folklore: the hare is cowardly, the bear is clumsy, the wolf is hungry and greedy, the fox is cunning.
Phraseologisms often contain the same words and images. Thus, human well-being is associated with the word pocket (empty pocket, wind in the pockets, full pocket, etc.); word a drop means something small ( a drop in the ocean, not a bit afraid, the last straw, etc.); word elephant symbolizes something big, significant ( I didn’t even notice the elephant, make a molehill out of a molehill, a bear stepped on an elephant’s ear like a pellet, etc.).
Phraseologisms may lose their imagery. This happens, for example, when the words on which the imagery is based become outdated and become incomprehensible. Yes, the expression quietly - on the sly, secretly– has lost its imagery, because the word has become incomprehensible glanders- a tunnel under the wall of the fortress, into which a charge of gunpowder was placed.
A proverb is a short wise saying that has an instructive meaning.
Proverbs and sayings are a unique genre of folk poetry. In a concise and precise verbal form, they summarize observations of entire groups of life phenomena, noting what is characteristic and special in them.
The most apt expressions, divorced from fairy-tale speech, early began to turn into proverbs and sayings. It was in this way that the fabulous “proverbs” that exist in our time were created: Don't drag, drag, The tale of the white bull, The thief's hat is on fire; Milk river on the banks of Kiselnye and so on. Either in a serious or in a humorous form of a proverb, people define its purpose and their attitude towards it: you can’t escape the proverb; The proverb is an assistant to all matters.
Proverbs are characterized by bold, rich rhymes-consonances, based on vowels and consonants: A scrap of dye and a piece of sauerkraut. This tendency towards consonances in proverbs and sayings sometimes leads to the creation of such phrases in which the play with consonances is especially noticeable: The goal has a goal. Reap the spelt, woman, and hit yourself on the forehead. Sleeping long means living with debt. Not in the rain - let's wait.
Proverbs and sayings, which were widely used among the people, began to penetrate literature early. The oldest examples of proverbs and sayings, undoubtedly folk in origin, are found in the text of the Tale of Bygone Years, a monument of the early 12th century; They widely use democratic Novgorod and Pskov chronicles of the 12th-16th centuries. The term “proverb” itself in its modern understanding not typical for ancient Rus'. The older chronicle (XI-XII centuries), citing historical proverbs and sayings, prefers to call them “parables,” that is, the same term that was used to call biblical stories. Until the 17th century, the word “proverb” also had the meaning “expression”, “word”. Thus, in the middle of the 16th century, Metropolitan Macarius, speaking about his work on compiling the “Chetya Menaion,” points out “Most of all, many works and feats arose from correcting foreign and ancient proverbs, translating them into Russian speech”; in the "Alphabet" of the 17th century, "proverb" is also understood as the word: "The Greeks add wasps to many proverbs, like Vasilios, Petros ...".
In folk epic usage, “proverb” in the 17th century is used as a synonym for the word “conversation.” In “The Tale of the Kyiv Heroes,” the heroes “ride across an open field, saying the following proverb among themselves: it would be better if we had not heard that great shame than that we had heard such a word from the prince in his own eyes...”; Before the battle, the heroes say among themselves a proverb: Look, gentlemen, comrades, and keep your eyes peeled for the horses...
But already early collections of folk proverbs and book aphorisms, appearing from the end of the 17th century, use the word “proverb” in the modern sense. Thus, a 17th-century collection of the former Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is entitled “National Tales or Proverbs in Alphabet”; the collection of the Petrovsky Gallery of the late 17th - early 18th centuries also names the collected sayings - “proverbs and proverbs, which have long been divulged among the people, used in words...”.
Ostrovsky’s proverbs are well rendered; he very skillfully used the linguistic wealth of Russian poetry: songs, proverbs, sayings, etc. Alexander Nikolaevich even uses proverbs in the titles of his plays: Don't live the way you want. Don't sit in your own sleigh. Our people - we will be numbered. Poverty is not a vice. Truth is good, but happiness is better. An old friend is better than two new ones and so on.
Medical terminology
From the first steps, a medical student is immersed in the atmosphere of a professional language specific to his profession. "It is very difficult for the uninitiated to understand what doctors and pharmacists are talking about. The most basic and noticeable difference between professional language and ordinary language is great amount special words and expressions."
Medical terminology is specific, and it also differs from the specialized language of other fields in that many terms in medicine are closely traditionally associated with Greek and Latin terms. Lexical array medical words and expressions is huge and constantly updated. A practicing doctor usually uses 3-4 thousand terms denoting diseases and symptoms.
Based mainly on the specifics of the terminologies of different professions, it is possible to distinguish various professional languages within the literary language as independent sectors. Of course, they rely on grammatical means and at the same time, they operate with a huge number of special words and expressions, native Russian and borrowed, which are not included in multi-volume dictionaries of the Russian literary language.
Such special, purely professional vocabulary is the property of various kinds of dictionaries for specialties. These are, for example, the "Medical Encyclopedia", terminological dictionaries and reference books on many medical disciplines.
Homework:
Write a miniature essay about a situation that is well known to you, in which you could use one of the following phraseological units:
a mosquito will not erode your nose; feed breakfast; look for the wind in the field; who knows what; to the fullest; bite your tongue; for a long ruble; get into trouble; like clockwork; with open arms; get into your groove.
Prepare a report on phraseological units used in medical practice(optional)
BLOCK
CONTROL
Control questions:
1. What are free and non-free phrases? What is their difference?
2.Phraseological turn, phraseological unit, set phrase, phraseological expression - do they have the same meaning?
3. Name the groups of phraseological units according to their origin.
4. Are there phraseological units - homonyms, - synonyms, - antonyms?
5. What other features do phraseological units have, being part of the vocabulary of the Russian language?
6. Do phraseological units differ in the scope of their use?
7. Is the vocabulary of the Russian language currently being replenished with phraseological units?
8. Are there any outdated or professional phraseological units?
9. Can catchwords, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, sayings, and quotes be classified as phraseological expressions?
10. What phraseological dictionaries do you know?
Assignments on the topic “Phraseology”
Task 1. Read the text. Write down the phraseological units found in it.
Makara's hut stood on the edge, on the jelly banks of the Molochnaya River. Getting up one morning from Procrustean's bed and breaking into open door, Makar added fuel to the fire, brought the ducks out into the open and, as usual, drove the calves somewhere.
The morning was clear as day. Brushing away the smoke without fire, Makar rolled down the inclined plane towards the herd.
The calves scattered to the pasture - some into the forest, some for firewood. Makar sat down in a puddle, bit the bit and simply opened a small box with a broken penny, which he mistakenly took for a clean coin.
There was a ringing sound. "Where is he from?" - thought Makar and looked around through his fingers.
Task 2. Find phraseological units in the text.
From head to toe
Once upon a time I was on friendly terms with him. But one day he (got off his left foot, or what?) started to fight me. I'm heading home as fast as I can! I barely got away with it!... but now I don’t even touch him. He won't have my leg anymore!
Yes, he behaves extremely badly. We should take it in our hands. And give him a hand. So that you know: don’t give your hands free reign! And then - I give you my hand to cut off - he will immediately stop letting go of his hands!
No doubt - hot head! But if we agreed with him, on our own head, then now we are responsible for his behavior with our head. I don’t yet know what we should do first (my head is spinning), but I think there’s no need to hang our heads. I guarantee my head that together we will always be able to soap his head! (A. Shibaev)
Task 3. Find correct option. Correct errors in the use of phraseological units.
We killed the worms.
They brought him to his white knees.
This work is not worth a dime.
He is the first spoke in the chariot.
I knelt in respect.
There is darkness all around - you can prick your eyes out.
He keeps shedding crocodile tears.
Task 4. Determine the meaning of phraseological units. Choose the correct answer.
ALPHA AND OMEGA: a) beginning and end, b) ending, c) solution to an important issue;
PUSH INTO AMBITION: a) become arrogant, b) suffer defeat, c) violently show your dissatisfaction;
ACHILLES' HEEL: vulnerable place, b) invulnerable place, c) geographical object;
RETIRED GOAT DRUMMER: a) an assistant in business, b) a person who does not deserve any attention, c) a musician;
MUSIN YOUNG LADY: A) important woman, b) a pampered person, c) a ballerina;
RAT RACE: a) care, b) about the actions of animals, c) petty concerns;
EAT MANA OF HEAVEN: a) live very well, b) malnourished, c) be in heaven;
BUILD SAND CASTLES: a) rely on unreliable data, b) engage in construction, c) foresee;
NOTHING IN DOUBT: a) without hesitation, b) headlong, c) very slowly;
UNDER THE MUT: a) together with someone, b) to the music, c) secretly;
PLACE UNDER BAG: a) without progress (about a request, a business paper), b) pay close attention to something, c) hope for something;
CROCODILE TEARS: a) cry a lot, b) hypocritical pity, c) crocodile tears;
CUT TO WALNUT: a) decorate, b) carpentry, c) strongly scold, scold;
IN ANOTHER'S Feast A HANGOVER: a) trouble because of others, b) joy among neighbors, c) participate in something.
Task 5. Read humorous stories from the magazine “Tram”, find phraseological units.
Nosaria,
or rules for using expressions about the nose
Each of us has an initial part of the respiratory tract, colloquially referred to as the nose. This is a very important part, it’s not for nothing that we think about it so often. And even in the phraseological dictionary of the Russian language you can find more than thirty expressions with the word NOS. But in order to skillfully use these expressions, the following rules must be observed:
1. If you hang your nose, then cut your nose, and even if your nose bleeds, follow the first rule: keep your nose up!
2. If someone sticks his nose into your affairs and tries to lead you by the nose and even leave you hanging, then, having met him nose to nose, tell him: “This is not on my nose!” and he will understand that you don’t like it, and will immediately stop twisting his nose and turning up his nose. If he doesn’t even move his nose, shove the real rules under his nose.
3. Only those who cannot see beyond their own nose can keep their nose to the wind. This will do him no good, and all decent people will turn their noses up at such a person. Your nose is your pride. Don't let it float around in the wind.
4. Don’t nod off, lie with your nose buried in the pillow, and don’t point your nose out into the street. Take action! And if someone says that your nose is not mature enough, then try to prove: you can wipe anyone’s nose. But only so that the mosquito does not undermine your nose.
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The skillful use of phraseological units introduces expression, imagery, emotional expressiveness into speech, and reveals the level of speech culture speaker or writer, his speech taste. However, when using phraseological units, certain difficulties arise: firstly, overuse expressive means can lead to artificial speech, and secondly, there is a danger of inaccurate use.
When using stable phrases, it is necessary to remember that stylistically phraseological units differ from words. The bulk of words are stylistically neutral, which cannot be said about phraseological units, the main purpose of which is to express various kinds of assessments, emotions and the attitude of the speaker to what is being expressed, which is an essential element of phraseological meaning. Therefore, there cannot be texts consisting only of phraseological units.
Phraseologisms of the Russian language can be divided into 4 main stylistic layers.
1. Most of the phraseological units relate to colloquial speech. The scope of application of such phraseological units is everyday communication, oral form dialogical speech: turn up your nose, put it in your belt, put your teeth on a shelf, bite your elbows, don’t let you in(whom?), to go too far, to cut with one brush(whom?), from around the corner, from under the stick, out of hand, this way and that, neither cold nor hot(to whom?).
2. Phraseologisms of a colloquial nature are used mainly in everyday speech and have a rudely reduced stylistic connotation: take it out and put it down, climb into the bottle, the bast does not knit, I slurp the cabbage soup without a bast shoe, neither skin nor face, the booby of the king of heaven, a lump out of the blue and etc.
Many colloquial phrases contain an intensifying meaning, thanks to which the emotionally expressive shades of phraseological units appear with the greatest force. The intensifying meaning is especially typical for adverbial phrases like ( run) to the fullest extent, (similar) The same.
3. Inter-style phraseological units do not have any stylistic connotation and are actively used in different styles oral and written speech. This is a relatively small category of phraseological units: anyway, by all means, from time to time, (give, convey) from hand to hand, at any cost, minute by minute, at every step, at the freezing point, for no reason in the world, with all my heart, under open air, completely and completely, play a role‘to hide one’s true nature’, call a spade a spade, put an end to it(on what?), come into being ‘be born’, come to mind and etc.
4. Book phraseological units are primarily characteristic of written speech and usually give it a touch of elation and solemnity; they are inherent mainly in social journalistic, official business and fictional speech. The emotional and expressive properties of book phraseological units are revealed against the background of stylistically neutral words; compare: die(neutral) – put your belly(book); native child (neutral) – flesh and blood(book); die(neutral) – close your eyes(book).
Expression of solemnity or elation is not a necessary property of book phraseological units. They can also be stylistically neutral. These are typical literary and bookish speech patterns of foreign language origin such as probe the soil(fr. sonder le terrin), pro and contra(lat. pro et contra), as well as phraseological units from Greco-Latin mythology such as Augean stables, barrel of Danaids, Ariadne's thread.
Phraseology (from the Greek phrases - expression and logos - teaching) is the science of linguistic units that are complex in composition and have a stable character: the cat cried, all daylight, carelessly.
Phraseologisms, unlike ordinary lexical units, have a number of characteristic features that must be taken into account when using a stable combination:
1. Phraseologisms are always complex in composition, that is, they consist of several words.
2. Phraseologisms semantically indivisible, that is, they have an indivisible meaning, which can often be expressed in one word: the cat cried - a little; carelessly - bad.
3. Phraseologisms, in contrast to free phrases, characterize consistency of composition. One or another component of a phraseological unit cannot be replaced with a word close in meaning. For example, instead of the cat cried can't say the cat cried or the cat cried. However, some phraseological units have variations: with all my heart - with all my soul; cast a shadow on a fence - cast a shadow on a clear day, but even here the composition cannot be changed. It is forbidden: cast a shadow on the fence.
4. Phraseologisms are distinguished reproducibility and predictability. They are used ready-made. So, having said bosom, we will definitely say further Friend(Not friend, acquaintance, comrade); nemesis maybe just enemy(Not enemy, pest).
5. Most phraseological units are characterized by impermeability of the structure, that is, they cannot arbitrarily include any elements. It is forbidden low look down or look downsad look. However, some phraseological units can be shortened: go through fire and water (and copper pipes); measure seven times (cut once).
6. Phraseologisms are inherent stability of grammatical form. You can't say: kick the bucket;on bare feet.
7. Most phraseological units are characterized by strict fixed word order. You cannot rearrange components in phraseological units: neither light nor dawn; blood with milk. However, phraseological units consisting of a verb and words dependent on it allow the rearrangement of components: take some water into your mouth – take some water into your mouth; leave no stone unturned - leave no stone unturned.
The main types of phraseological units according to the degree of motivation of the components.
1. Phraseological adhesions– they are not derived from the values of their components: goof(“prosak” – a machine for weaving nets); kick your ass(“baklushi” – wooden blanks for spoons); without hesitation (“without any doubt”); you can’t see anything (“zga” -).
2. Phraseological unities– their meanings are partly related to the semantics of their components, used in figurative meaning: reach a dead end; to beat with a key; to go with the flow; keep the stone in your bosom; take into one's hands; bite your tongue. They may have homonyms, that is, words used in direct meaning: Yesterday I bit my tongue really hard while eating..
3. Phraseological combinations– their meanings are motivated by the semantics of their components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: look down (head). The verb “downcast” in the meaning of “lower” has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words.
23. Syntax(from the Greek syntaxis - composition) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of phrases and the doctrine of sentences. The main syntactic units are: word form, phrase, sentence, SFU (supra-phrasal unity) (or STS - complex syntactic whole). Syntactic norms- these are the rules for constructing phrases and sentences.
1. Word order in a sentence
2. Agreement between subject and predicate
3. Use of participial phrases
4. Management
1. Word order The Russian language is relatively fluent. This means that there is no specific place assigned to one or another member of the sentence (cf. in it: Ich will ins Kino gehen). Word order in Russian can be direct or reverse. However, arbitrary rearrangement of words in a sentence can lead to disruption of logical connections between words and lead to a change in the meaning of the statement. At the meeting, the commitments made were successfully fulfilled. – Done at the meeting itself? Necessary: The commitments made at the meeting were successfully fulfilled. Secondary members of a sentence should be placed next to those words on which they depend in meaning or grammatically. The same applies to function words.
An exhibition of works by teachers, parents and children made from natural materials was organized. Necessary: An exhibition of works made from natural materials by educators, parents and children was organized.
2. Subject and predicate agreement
2.1. The predicate must be put in the same form as the subject (i.e. in the same gender, number and person). It is forbidden: Kids funnyfrolicked on the lawn. Necessary: Kids funnyfrolicked on the lawn.
2.2. With a subject that contains words set, number, part, majority, minority and controlled noun in will give birth. case, the predicate can be either singular or plural.
The singular number of the predicate is used if:
– a noun means not animate objects (Row of tables stood in the audience);
– the activity of the characters is not emphasized ( Most students was missing ).
The plural of the predicate is used if:
– a noun denotes animate objects, and also if activity is emphasized characters (Most students passed exam);
- with the subject there is participial or attributive clause with a conjunctive word which (Most students who entered universities immediately after school, successfully passed winter session.Most textbooks , which will be used by first graders,out of print first);
– with a collective noun there are several controlled words in the form birth. case, plural numbers: Majority progressive socialfigures , writers , scientists spoke against war.
2.3. Predicate with subject type brother and sister can stand in both singular and multiply. number. Plural The predicate emphasizes the equality and activity of the characters: Brother and sister are coming to the store. The singular number indicates that one of the characters is the main one: Brother and sister coming to the store.
2.4. Coordination of the predicate with homogeneous subjects
2.4.1. In direct word order, plural is usually used. predicate number: Heat and drought stood more than three weeks(L. Tolstoy); Rumble guns and bolt explosions were heard everywhere.
2.4.2. When word order is reversed, units are usually used. predicate number: Died Andfeeder and swimmer (A. Pushkin).
2.5. When the subject is expressed by an indivisible group of words (names), the form of the predicate depends on the composition of this group.
2.5.1. If this group has a leading word in Im. case (singular or plural), then the predicate agrees with it: « The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes » made up cycle of works by the writer.
2.5.2. If there is no such leading word, then the predicate is usually put in the neuter gender: « There was a birch tree in the field » was heard from afar.
2.5.3. If a compound name is formed by several nouns of different grammatical gender, then, although sometimes there is agreement with the first of them ( « War and Peace » written L.N. Tolstoy), choosing the form of the predicate is difficult. In such cases, the generic name should be included: Novel "War and Peace"written L.N. Tolstoy.
2.6. Predicate with subject - quantitative-nominal combination (countable turnover)
2.6.1. Unit form the number of the predicate indicates joint actions, the plural form. numbers – for separate action execution: Five soldiers went into intelligence(group); Five soldiers went into intelligence(each with an independent task).
2.6.2. Unit form the number of the predicate indicates the totality of objects, the plural form. numbers - for individual items: Arrived six hundred students ; On the tablestood three plates .
2.6.3. Unit form The number of the predicate is used when denoting a measure of weight, space, time, etc., since in this case a single whole is meant: To paint the roofgone twenty kilograms of paint ; To complete all the workwill be needed six months .
2.6.4. With numerals two three four; two, three, four the predicate is usually put in plural form. numbers: To the laboratory assistanthelped three students .
But verbs with the meaning of state, not action (i.e. being, presence, existence, position in space, etc.) are used in the singular form. numbers: At my father'swas two sons ; In the roomwas three windows .
2.6.5. For compound numerals ending in one, the predicate is put in unit form. numbers: Twenty one delegates arrived to the meeting.
2.6.6. At the words thousand, million, billion the predicate agrees with them in gender and number: A thousand books arrived to the library; A million demonstrators filled out city streets.
2.6.7. If during a counting turn there are words all these, then the predicate is put in plural form. numbers: Recentlybuilt Andthese seven houses .
If there are words in the subject just, only, only the predicate is used in singular. number: To the chess clubsigned up only six people .
2.6.8. If the subject is a numeral without a noun:
– numeral-subject in the meaning of an abstract number, the predicate is put in singular. number: Twenty shares for four without remainder;
– the idea of a specific figure is associated with the numeral subject, the predicate is put into plural. number: And againare coming twelve , / Behind the gun’s shoulders...(A. Blok).
2.6.9. If the subject noun contains a noun with the meaning of a certain quantity ( pair, three, hundred etc.) the predicate is put in singular form. numbers: Seven planes rushed forward.
2.6.10. With a subject with a numeral floor- (half an hour, six months etc.) the predicate is put in singular. number, and in the past vr. - on Wednesday. kind: Half an hour will pass unnoticed; Half the city participated in demonstration. But if there is another definition in Im. n. plural numbers, then the predicate is multiplied. number: Firsthalf an hour passed unnoticed; Resthalf the house survived from fire.
2.7. Coordination of the predicate with the subject, which has an application
2.7.1. By general rule The presence of the application does not affect the approval: Young woman -pilot skillfullyled car. But it is also possible to agree on the meaning: Only the greatestart - music -able to touch depths of the soul(Bitter).
2.7.2. With combinations baobab tree, St. John's wort herb the predicate agrees with the word, which is a generic name: baobab tree spread out its branches; Herb St. John's wort grew up throughout the clearing.
2.7.3. When a common noun is combined with a person’s own name, the latter acts as the subject, and the predicate agrees with it: Duty foremanOksana Litovchenko pushed through to Zakhar(Makarenko). Other proper names (names of animals, geographical names, names of press organs, etc.) are applications, and the predicate agrees with the common noun: Dog Ball loudbarked ; Lake Baikal is verydeep .
2.8. When the subject is a nickname of a person, the predicate takes the gender form, which corresponds to the gender of the person being called: Duca a lot todayhave worked .
2.9. If the subject is expressed by a complex word (cloak-tent, Izvestia newspaper), then the predicate agrees with the word that expresses the generic (more general) concept: Sofa bed purchased recently; Library-museum received new books; Newspaper "News"published interesting material; But: "News" report O …
2.10. If the subject is expressed by an indeclinable noun or an abbreviation, then the predicate agrees with the subject in accordance with its gender (see the topic “Gender of indeclinable nouns”): Newcoat purchased recently; Salami I really likeI liked it ; In a cagesat hugechimpanzee ; Capri Verypicturesque .
3. Consumption participial phrases
A prerequisite for the use of participial phrases is that two actions, one of which is expressed by a predicate verb, and the other by a gerund or participial phrase, must be carried out by the same person (or relate to the same person).
Correct errors in the use of participial phrases: Driving under the bridge, my hat fell off; Returning home, I was caught in the rain.
Such errors can be corrected in two ways: by preserving the participial phrase and not preserving it (by using a subordinate tense).
– While driving under the bridge, I lost my hat; My hat fell off as I passed under the bridge..
– Returning home, I was caught in the rain; When I was returning home I was caught in the rain.
4. Control
Errors can appear when mixing prepositional and non-prepositional controls.
Synonyms that require different management
|
Worry about someone |
Worry about whom |
Fear for whom |
|
|
Identical to what |
Similar to what |
Similar to what |
|
|
Pay attention to whom/what |
Attend to whom; to what | ||
|
Review of what |
Review of what |
Observations on active processes in the development and change of Russian phraseology in speech and language forms in all centuries they expressed the facets of human culture. Phraseology embellishes speech, but modern speakers relatively rarely use phraseological units, especially in literary-colloquial style, and more often in everyday life. Although everyone should understand phraseological units and be able to use them appropriately.
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Phraseologisms, their types and structural features. Stylistic and speech existence of phraseological units.
Novitskaya M.V.
GBOU secondary school No. 374, St. Petersburg
Many articles, books, dissertations have been written about phraseology, and interest in this area of language does not dry up either among researchers or those who are simply not indifferent to words. The accuracy of the formula expressed at the dawn of the century by the famous Danish linguist Otto Jespersen, who called phraseology “a despotic capricious and elusive thing,” is confirmed. The very fact of the presence in a language, in addition to words, of entire verbal complexes, which are sometimes identical to a word, and more often are a unique linguistic phenomenon, distinguished by vivid expressiveness, imagery and emotionality, serves as a reason for us to explore this particular branch of linguistics. The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, which has the richest traditions, the highest culture. The scientific study of the Russian language begins where the element of awareness of the patterns inherent in the language is added to the objectively ongoing process of mastering one’s native speech. One of the most important tasks of learning the Russian language is the task of mastering literate and expressive Russian speech. Mastering the phraseological richness of the Russian language helps to significantly improve the culture of speech, which, unfortunately, is not high enough and leaves much to be desired.
1. The main stages in the development of phraseology as a linguistic discipline
Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline in Soviet linguistics arose in the 40s. XX century The prerequisites for the theory of phraseology were laid down in the works of A.A. Potebnya, I.I. Sreznevsky, A.A. Shakhmatov and F.F. Fortunatov. The development of phraseology was also influenced by the ideas of the French linguist Sh. Bali (1865-1947). In Western European and American linguistics, phraseology is not distinguished as a special section of linguistics. The question of studying stable combinations of words in a special section of linguistics - phraseology was raised in educational literature back in 20-40. in the works of E.D. Polivanov, S.I. Abakumov, L.A. Bulakhovsky. The study of phraseology was stimulated by lexicographic practice, on the one hand, and on the other, by the works of Vinogradov, in which questions were raised about the basic concepts of phraseology, its scope and tasks. In the 50s, the main attention was paid to the similarities and differences of phraseological units with words and combinations of words; the problems of phraseology were limited mainly to clarifying the criteria for phraseology and clarifying the basics of the classification of phraseological units. Since the late 50s there has been a trend systematic approach to the problems of phraseology, issues related to the description of phraseological units as structural units of language are being developed (A.I. Smirnitsky, O.S. Akhmanova). The 60-70s in the development of phraseology are characterized by the intensive development of actual phraseological methods for studying the objects of phraseology, based on the ideas of system-level analysis of language facts (V.L. Arkhangelsky, N.N. Amosova, V.P. Zhukov, A.V. .Kunin, M.T. Tagiev), study of the systemic organization of phraseological composition (I.I. Chernysheva, N.M. Shansky) and its development (V.N. Mokienko, F.N. Popov, A.I. Fedorov) , Special attention is paid to the semantics of phraseological units, and its nominative aspect (V.N. Teliya), phrase formation in its dynamics (S.G. Gavrin, Yu.A. Gvozdarev), signs of compatibility of component words (M.M. Kopylenko, Z.D. Popov), comparative and typological study of phraseological composition (Yu.Yu. Avaliani, L.I. Rozeizon), as well as the development of descriptions of phraseological units in dictionaries (A.M. Babkin, A.I. Molotkov).
2. Two directions in views on the subject and essence of phraseology
The subject of phraseologyas branches of linguistics areresearch of categorical features of phraseological units, on the basis of which the main features of phraseological units are identified and the question of the essence of phraseological units as special units of language is resolved, as well as the identification of patterns of functioning of phraseological units in speech and the processes of their formation. However, in the presence of a single subject of research and, despite numerous detailed developments of many issues of phraseology, to this day there are different points of view on what a phraseological unit is, what the scope of phraseology of the Russian language is. The lists of phraseological units of the Russian language, proposed by different scientists, are so different from each other that with with good reason we can talk about different, often directly opposite, even mutually exclusive views on the subject of research and about diversity and confusion in the scientific terminology used to denote the corresponding concepts. This explains both the unclear understanding of the tasks, goals and the very essence of the term “phraseology”, and the fact that there is no sufficiently specific unified classification phraseological units of the Russian language from the point of view of their semantic cohesion. Although the most common (with clarifications and additions) is the classification of V.V. Vinogradov. That is why, finally, much in the Russian phraseological system is just beginning to be studied.
Summarizing a wide range of views on phraseology, we can note the following. In modern linguistics, two directions of research have clearly emerged.First directionthe starting point is the recognition that a phraseological unit is a unit of language that consists of words, then is by nature phrase . At the same time, some scientists express the idea that the object of phraseology is all concrete phrases that are actually possible in a given language, regardless of the qualitative differences between them. So, for example, Kopylenko says the following: “Phraseology covers all... combinations of lexemes that exist in a given language, including the so-called “free” phrases “[Kopylenko, Popova 1972: 81-84].
On the other hand, the object of phraseology within the boundaries of this direction is recognized only by certain categories and groups of word combinations, which stand out from all those possible in speech by their special originality. Depending on what features are taken into account when identifying such phrases, the composition of such units in the language is determined. Only these “special” phrases can be called phraseological units. It is recommended to consider a phraseological unit as a set of characteristics of a word and a phrase; the homonymy of a phraseological unit and the phrase that is structurally correlated with it is emphasized.
Second directionin Russian phraseology proceeds from the fact that a phraseological unit isnot a phrase(neither in form nor in content), this is a unit of language that consists not from words . The object of phraseology are expressions that are only genetically the essence of phrases. “They are decomposable only etymologically, that is, outside the system of modern language, in historical terms” [Larin 1956:202]. These expressions are contrasted with phrases that are not homonymous, since they are qualitatively different from them. The main thing in the study of a phraseological unit is not the semantic and formal characteristics of the components that form it, and not the connections between the components, but the phraseological unit itself as a whole, as a unit of language that has a certain form, content and features of use in speech. The history and etymology of each phraseological unit is studied in a non-linear dependence on certain “universal” schemes for rethinking phrases, on the degree of semantic unity of components and on the degree of desemantization of words in phrases. The main provisions of this direction are considered by A.I. Molotkov in the introductory article to the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, in his book “Fundamentals of Phraseology of the Russian Language” and other works.
The position of N.M. Shansky, expressed in a number of his works, for example, in the book “Phraseology of the Modern Russian Language,” is shared by many scientists, in particular, the authors of the encyclopedia “Russian Language”. There, for example, the following definition of a phraseological unit is given:
“Phraseological unit, phraseological unit,- a general name for semantically non-free combinations of words that are not produced in speech (as syntactic structures similar in form - phrases or sentences), but are reproduced in it in a socially assigned stable relationship between semantic content and a certain lexical and grammatical composition. Semantic shifts in the meanings of lexical components, stability and reproducibility are interconnected universal and distinctive features of a phraseological unit" [Russian language 1979: 381].
3. Division of phraseological units into types according to the degree of semantic unity of their components
The structural and semantic properties of phraseological units, distinguishing their types, are formed, as a rule, in the process of rethinking the original combinations of words as a whole or at least one of the lexical components of the combination. In the first case, phraseological units are formed that have a consistent meaning (or the property of idiomaticity). The fused meaning can be figurative or ugly and the purpose of their lexical components is indecomposable:look through my fingers, I saw the sights, the chickens laughed, it relieved my heart. In the second, the reinterpreted word develops a phraseologically related meaning, which can only be realized in combination with a specific word or a number of words, which leads to the formation of stable verbal complexes that have an analytical (divided) meaning:white meat, golden youth, slave of passions (habits, fashion), come to a thought (to a conclusion, to a decision).
Among phraseological units of the first kind, phraseological adhesions are distinguished (their meanings are absolutely unmotivated in the modern vocabulary of the language):pour bullets, the curve will take out, on all the crusts,and phraseological unities, in the meaning of which one can distinguish the meaning motivated by the meanings of the components in their usual use:blocking the path, at full speed, is a dark forest. Distinctive feature unity - imagery.
Phraseological units, characterized by analytical meaning, represent a special type of structural and semantic units of phraseological composition - phraseological combinations. These are phraseological units in which there are words with both a free meaning and phraseologically related ones. A specific feature of words with a phraseologically related meaning is their lack of an independent sign function: with the semantic isolation of such word meanings, they are capable of denoting extra-linguistic objects only in combination with other words that act as nominative supporting components of these word combinations (black bread, black market, black suit, black day). This property of theirs manifests itself in the dependence of the choice of words with phraseologically related meanings on semantically keywords in the process of constructing the lexical and grammatical composition of a sentence. Words with phraseologically related meanings act as constant elements of phraseological combinations; they enter into synonymous, antonymic and subject-thematic connections only together with semantically key words for them. Phraseological combinations have almost no homonymous free combinations of words.
N.M. Shansky also identifies a fourth type of phraseological units - phraseological expressions. These are “phrasological units that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically distinct, but also consist entirely of words with free meaning. Phraseological expressions differ from phraseological combinations in that they do not contain words with a phraseologically related meaning:Love for all ages; If you are afraid of wolves, do not go into the forest; Wholesale and Retail; seriously and for a long time; the process has begun; market economy.The words that form them cannot have synonyms.” Their hallmark– reproducibility. Phraseological expressions are divided into nominative and communicative (correlated with a part of a sentence and with a sentence, respectively).
4. The problem of distinguishing variants and synonyms of phraseological units
As significant units, phraseological units are used in different ways in the language. Some appear in a constant lexical and grammatical composition:weeping willow; The Irony of Fate; The dead have no shame; in the image and likeness; form the basis;others function as several equal options. And the fact that there are a large number of phraseological units in the language, similar in semantics, but differing in lexico-grammatical design, causes heated discussions. The main question facing practical phraseology is what to count variants and what are synonyms one turn or another. The concept of a variant of a phraseological unit is usually given against the background of the identity of its holistic meaning or image. Most scientists recognize that “variants of a phraseological phrase are its lexico-grammatical varieties, identical to it in meaning and degree of semantic unity” [Shansky 1996:55]. However, disagreement arises when the definition beginstypes of variation. The main types of phraseological variation are formal transformations and lexical replacements of phraseological unit components. This classification of phraseological variants is recognized by most researchers. The formal variation of the components of a phraseological unit is determined by the fact of the genetic commonality of the word and the phraseological component, therefore the types of variation of the component are similar to the types of variation of lexemes. In live speech, you can record all types of such options - from accentological and phonetic (cf.:bloom mushrooms And bloom mushrooms -“cry, whine”; naturally phoneticbecome an oak, oak, oaketc., or distortion of turnoverSt. Bartholomew's Nightin the Pskov dialectKhylamevo night) to syntactic (psk.work for the staff instead of in the state ). Morphological variants of phraseological units are usually reduced to two types - paradigmatic and word-forming. In the first case, changes in components are observed within the paradigm of the original words:beat (beat, beat) the thumbs, keep in mind(dial. in the minds). The second type is variants caused by modifications of word-formative formants:lick your fingers, go crazy.
The lexical variation of phraseological units is stated by many researchers. But even in the latest works one can find a decisive rejection of the interpretation of lexical substitutions as variation and the desire to consider this phenomenon as phraseological synonymy. The opinion of Babkin is very definite in this regard, who considers the concept of “phraseological synonym” undeniable, and “phraseological variant” controversial when applied to cases of lexical replacement of components of a phraseological unit [Babkin 1970:84-85]. N.M. Shansky identifies three types of phraseological options:
- phraseological units containing different, but equally semantically empty components (in this case, the phraseological unit can function without these members):not worth a penny (measured) - not worth a penny, what is (was) strength - what strength;
- phraseological units containing words that differ grammatically;
- phraseological units that differ from one another as full and abbreviated varieties (in which case their relationships are identicalrelations existing between full and abbreviated words):to back down - to back down; be in interesting position- to be in a position(cf.: deputy - deputy, radio station - walkie-talkie) [Shansky 1996: 57].
He recommends considering phraseological units that contain common members of the same meaning as “doublet synonyms” [Shansky 1996:56]. Thus, revolutions likegive a bath (pepper), with all your heart - with all your soul; kick the bucket (shabalu); grind nonsense (nonsense); fold (break) one's head; take (take) into custody; complete (round) fooletc. are recognized as doublet synonyms.
V.M. Mokienko, on the contrary, believes that “such an interpretation significantly impoverishes the concept of a phraseological variant and excessively expands the concept of a phraseological synonym. The main premise that leads researchers to deny the lexical variation of phraseological units cannot be considered objective. Lexical replacement of components does not always change the image or character of a phraseological unit. Words can often be replaced - synonyms that ensure the stability of figurative representation, and the range of these words, especially in live speech, is very wide. Quite often, the replacement of components takes place in the thematic circle of vocabulary, ensuring the relative identity of figurative representation:soap your neck (head); go crazy (crazy, go crazy). It is difficult not to recognize the structural-semantic closeness, almost identity of phrases of this type. Refusal to define them as lexical variants of phraseological units will lead to their confusion with phraseological synonyms different structures and stylistic assessment of typethrow back the bast shoes - play the box - give the oak or count the ribs - give a beating - show Kuzka's mother[Mokienko 1989:31-32].Mokienko considers the main features of a variant of a phraseological unit to be the unity of internal motivation, the image of a phraseological unit and the relative identity of the syntactic structure within which lexical replacements take place. Thanks to these conditions, “lexical replacements in variants of phraseological units are of a strictly natural, systematic nature” [Mokienko 1989: 33].
In the Encyclopedia “Russian Language” the question of variants is covered briefly, but quite definitely: “In the structure of most phraseological idioms, constant (constant) and variable elements are distinguished. Constant elements form the basis of the identity of the unit, variable elements create the possibility of variation. Variation of phraseological idioms is expressed in the modification of elements correlated with units different levels: lexical-semantic (fall / fall from the moon / from the sky, hang / hang on by a thread / by a thread,Let's also compare the stylistic options:climb / get into trouble, turn your head / head), syntactic, morphological, word-formation and phonetic, as well as in changing the number of lexical components that do not violate the identity of the unit” [Russian language 1979:382]. In other words, the authors of the Encyclopedia adhere to approximately the same point of view as V.M. Mokienko. Meanwhile, a change in the original form of a phraseological unit is considered a fairly common occurrence. Outwardly, this may look like a violation of the norm, speech error. But when used in fiction, in newspapers, colloquial speech, phraseological units may change: “make a mountain out of a molehill “- “inflate a mountain out of a molehill.”Is such a “game” incorrect, and should such usage be corrected? “Such liberties are permissible in the language of writers, in everyday speech; strict recommendations are not always appropriate here.” [Russian language and culture of speech 2002:85-91]
5. Question about the original form of phraseological units
The problem of variants and synonyms of phraseological units is also closely related to the question of the original form of phraseological units. As A.M. wrote Babkin, if the speed “, catch the eye, catch the eye, rush into the eye, hit the eye and get into the eye- these are variants of one phraseological unit”, then “the question is which one exactly? Of course, with a purely external lexico-grammatical approach, one can imagine a model: variable verb + in the eyes ” [Babkin 1970:84]. Naturally, lexicographers have difficulties related to the form in which phraseological units should be placed in the title of a dictionary entry. The most logical, in our opinion, is the approach used by many lexicographers and considered by V.P. Zhukov in his work “Phraseological variation and synonymy in connection with the problem of phraseography (based on the Dictionary of Phraseological Synonyms of the Russian Language). “The author notes that phraseological units can have variants of one component and can combine several variant forms at the same time (this is especially typical for verbal phraseological units varying degrees difficulties). The most difficult cases occur when severaltypes of variation(see above). At the same time, individual variants of phraseological units in their specific word usage may outwardly differ noticeably from each other. V.P. Zhukov gives the following way out of the difficulty. Regarding optionsgive it a go and set the traction(“to hastily run away”) he writes: “variation here does not turn into synonymy, sinceoriginal formulaThe analyzed turnover looks like this:give (set) the move (traction, pulling, scratching),where variable nouns are synonyms” [Zhukov 1990:86]. But even if the lexical modification is perceived by the authors of the dictionary as a synonym, and not a variant of the phrase, problems still remain. Difficulties of this kind were noticed and characterized by B.T. Khaitov in the article “Phraseological units in the dictionary.” The author draws attention to morphological features verbal phraseological units of the Russian language and the reflection of these features in the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by A.I. Molotkov (ed. I - 1967, ed. V-1994). Verbal phraseological units that are used only or predominantly in one of the grammatical forms are placed in the infinitive in some dictionary entries (kill yourself on the nose, don’t sniff gunpowder, knock out a wedge with a wedge, give an oak, tell you to live long, play the box, look out all eyes). The opposite picture is also observed: “many phraseological units that have several grammatical forms, the headings of the dictionary entry are placed in one. Fixing verbal phraseological units in the dictionary in one or another grammatical form is important for solving another problem: distinguishing phraseological paronyms. For example:
The foot didn't step whose (non-Soviet type, past tense) – where no one has ever been or lived. About remote, wild, uninhabited places.
The foot won't step whose (past tense, indefinite-personal) – someone will not appear anywhere. Phraseological paronyms can belong to either the same or different lexico-grammatical categories, in which the role of the morphological properties of the main word of the phraseological unit is also important:swallow tongue -shut up, stop talking, don't chat, etc. (verb phraseological unit);swallow your tongue -very tasty (adverbial phraseological unit) - used only in the 2nd person form.
But the main phraseological units constitute, of course, only part of the entire phraseological system of the Russian language. And other types of phraseological units also have their own characteristics. This once again confirms the idea that in the field of phraseology and phraseography, a wide field for research opens up for Russian scientists.
6. Examples of the use of phraseological units in different language styles.
A). Conversational style of language.
Finally, the child woke up and started screaming swear words , soon the second and the third unanimously echoed and pulled him up.M. Gorky. Poor Pavel.
I'm putting on a play that I hope will bring me something, and I'm also cooking from under the floor another. Gogol. Letter to M.A. Maksimovich, August 14. 1834.
I, he says, wrote about this to all higher-level organizations, but believe me, I still don’t haveno answer, no hello. A. Kolosov. For the samovar.
They themselves muzzle and the troops muzzle. – Management crazy with fat . -Everyone wants to be a senior. Sholokhov. Quiet Don.
We were left alone in the room. The guys were not shy about anyone and almostwalked on their heads. N. Nosov. Christmas tree.
Let there be different old people there day with fire they are looking for versions of long-forgotten legends, and we will record the songs that people create and sing now. N. Rylenkov. Great Rosstan.
B). Book style of language.
This opportunity happened (he did not answer the letter) because our desk represents Augean stables and only now could I find a piece of paper. Mussorgsky. Letter to V.V. Stasov, March 31, 1872.
Attitude to work is Alpha and Omega , this is where everything comes from!V. Dmitrevsky and B. Chetverikov. We are peaceful people.
I didn’t think about anything now, and it’s unknown how long thisSt. Bartholomew's Night, but suddenly my knife broke.V. Soloukhin. Grass.
America's President, Theodore Roosevelt, beganprobe the soilregarding mediation and peace between Japan and Russia. M. Sokolov. Sparks.
This and that, I see, the face is familiar, and most importantly: the voice -trumpet of Jericho. I’ve never seen anyone else have such a copper throat!A. Stepanov. The Zvonarev family.
IN). Scientific style of language.
dew point is the temperature at which water vapor, which previously did not saturate the air, becomes saturated.
Liquefaction of gases - turning them into a liquid state.
Energy of a homogeneouselectric field.
Ohm's law for complete electrical circuit, consisting of a current source with emf. and internal resistance.
Impulse is a function of mechanical statematerial point.
G). Officially - business style language.
Individual work activity- an integral part of economic system Russia.
Marriage registration– is established both in the state and public interests, and for the purpose of protecting the personal and property rights and interests of spouses.
Social Security– state system of material support and services for Russian citizens.
Legal representative– whose authority is established by law.
Limitation of actions– the period for protecting the right by court, arbitration or arbitration tribunal.
Housing stock – these are residential buildings, as well as residential premises in non-residential buildings intended for permanent residence.
D). Journalistic style of language.
This belief is probably based on the poetic definition “oil - black gold».
The gas station business was criminalized back inSoviet times.
« Gas station queens"and their henchmen were regular clients of OBKhSS.
This system approached almost unchanged by the time the country began to transfer tomarket economy.
It is on this wave Most of the current owners of gas station chains have surfaced.
How do they recognize law enforcement officers, today the gasoline market is under the control of shadow tycoons.
Conclusion
Phraseologisms, although they have substantive and formal characteristics of level units (words and phrases), in themselves, however, do not form a special linguistic level. The fact is that phraseological units are practically not combined with each other in a sentence, and also are not divided into simpler level units and do not generate language units that are more complex than themselves. Phraseological circulation is a rather complex and contradictory unity. Some properties bring a phraseological unit closer to a phrase, others - to a word. Due to the discrepancy between the content and the way of expressing a phraseological phrase, many transitional, intermediate phenomena arise.
Phraseologism is limited in its change of form and combinatory properties, which are regulated and constantly restrained internal shape and the general meaning of phraseological units. Certain modifications of phraseological units, as well as the expansion of contextual connections, must satisfy the requirements of semantic unity of phraseological units.
In the field of phraseology, various patterns and trends appear. It is also known that the measure of idiomaticity of a phraseological unit depends on the nature and degree of de-actualization of the components; the greater the discrepancy between the word of free use and the corresponding component, the more difficult it is to identify the own meaning of the component, the higher the idiomaticity of the phraseological unit. The inverse relationship is also true.
Observations of active processes in the development and change of Russian phraseology allow us to make the following conclusions :
- A large number of words and phraseological units that have ceased to be relevant have passed into the passive stock.
- New words and phraseological units associated with the need to name new objects, concepts and phenomena have been added to the vocabulary of the Russian language. The enrichment of the vocabulary is carried out through word formation according to patterns existing in the language, by borrowing foreign words.
- The widespread use of scientific and technical terminology leads to a change in the scope of its use, causes the use of terms in metaphorical and figurative terms; compare:high voltage, strength test and etc.
- Due to the interaction of styles, the stylistic coloring of words and phrases often changes (for example,time pressure, launching pad, provide assistance, give instructions and etc.).
Speech is used to judge the cultural level of an individual and the entire society. After all, the facets of human culture have been expressed in speech and language forms in all centuries. Phraseology embellishes speech, but modern speakers relatively rarely use phraseological units, especially in literary-colloquial style, and more often in everyday life. But everyone should understand phraseological units and be able to use them appropriately.
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