Russian State Trade and Economic University
Saratov Institute (Branch)
Department of Humanities
in political science
Topic 11: "POLITICAL REGIMS"
Completed:
Checked:
Saratov 2003
Work plan
1. Essence and types of political regimes 3
2. Democratic regimes 5
3. Liberal political regime 8
4. Non-democratic regimes 10
Conclusion 17
References 20
1. Essence and types of political regimes
The choice of this topic is due to the fact that I would like to better understand the processes taking place in Russia today, since our country has moved from one political regime to another, namely from “totalitarianism” to “democracy”.
In this work I would like to find out what is behind these terms.
I'll start by defining the political regime. Each state has its own political regime. According to the definition of the Legal Dictionary, a political regime is called “in the science of constitutional law, a concept denoting a system of techniques, methods, forms, and ways of exercising political power. There is no single typology of political regimes. The nature of the political regime is never directly indicated in the Constitutions of states (except for the very common indications of the democratic nature of the state), but is almost always directly reflected in their content.” 1
What types of political regimes exist? There are a lot of them, since one or another type of political regime is influenced by many factors. Thus, each state, to one degree or another, has its own special political regime and modern world we can talk about 140-160 modes, which differ slightly from each other.
Political regimes, as well as their classification, are of great interest and are of great importance for the theory of state and law. The issue of classifying political regimes is also very important when characterizing the state and determining its form.
Even the ancient philosopher Aristotle gave two criteria by which classification can be made:
according to whose hands the power is;
by how this power is used.
“Correct” forms of state: monarchy (the power of one person), aristocracy (power in the hands of the few “best”), politics (the power of the majority of average people in terms of property).
“Wrong” forms of state are those in which people in power act in their own interests, without caring for the good of society. The “wrong” forms include: tyranny (power in the hands of a tyrant), oligarchy (a minority in power) and democracy (control of society (the majority) over power).
The nature of the political regime existing in a particular country is evidenced by various factors, but the most important of them are the following:
methods and procedure for forming government bodies,
the order of distribution of competence between various state bodies and the nature of their relationships,
the degree of guarantee of the rights and freedoms of citizens,
the role of law in the life of society and solving public affairs,
the place and role in the state mechanism of the army, police, counterintelligence, intelligence and other similar structures, the degree of real participation of citizens and their associations in state and socio-political life, in government,
the main ways to resolve social and political conflicts that arise in society.” 2
Currently, one of the fairly simple, widespread classifications of political regimes involves dividing them into: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic. Thus, the most significant of the political regimes are the following four:
a) democratic political regime;
b) liberal political regime;
d) totalitarian political regime.
It is these four political regimes that need to be separated into separate groups, because they are important and represent great importance for the theory of state and law.
2. Democratic regimes
Democracy- (from the ancient Greek DEMOS - people and CRUTOS - power) - democracy is one of the main forms of structure of any organization, based on the equal participation of its members in management and decision-making in it by the majority; the ideal of social order: freedom, equality, respect for human dignity, solidarity, etc.; social and political movement for democracy. Since its inception, democracy has been associated with the state, and therefore with coercion, and at best is the rule of the majority over the minority, and most often a form of government of a well-organized privileged minority, more or less controlled by the people.
Democratic regime- characterized high degree political freedom of a person, the real exercise of his rights, allowing him to influence the public administration of society. The political elite is usually quite narrow, but it is based on a broad social base.
A democratic regime is characterized by a number of distinctive features, namely:
Sovereignty of the people: It is the people who choose their government representatives and can periodically replace them. Elections must be fair, competitive and held regularly.
Periodic election of the main bodies of the state. The government is born from elections and for a certain, limited period. To develop democracy, it is not enough to hold regular elections; it must be based on an elected government.
Democracy protects rights individuals and minorities. The opinion of the majority, expressed democratically in elections, is only a necessary condition for democracy, however, it is by no means insufficient. Only combination of majority rule and protection of rights minorities constitute one of the basic principles of a democratic state
Equal rights of citizens to participate in governance state: freedom to create political parties and other associations to express their will, freedom of opinion, the right to information and to participate in competition for leadership positions in the state.
Depending on how the people participate in governance, who directly performs power functions and how, democracy is divided into direct, plebiscitary and representative.
At direct democracy all citizens themselves directly participate in the preparation, discussion and decision-making. Such a system can only make practical sense with a relatively small number of people, such as in community or tribal councils or local trade union bodies, where all members can meet in one room to discuss issues and make decisions by consensus or majority vote.
An important channel for citizen participation in the exercise of power is plebiscitary democracy. The difference between it and direct democracy is that direct democracy presupposes the participation of citizens at all the most important stages of the governing process (in preparation, adoption of political decisions and control over their implementation), and with plebiscitary democracy the possibilities political influence citizens are relatively limited, such as referendums.
The third, most common in modern society shape political participation is representative democracy. Its essence is that citizens elect their representatives to government bodies, who are called upon to express their interests in making political decisions, adopting laws and implementing social and other programs. Election procedures may vary widely, but whatever they may be, elected officials in a representative democracy hold office on behalf of the people and are accountable to the people in all their actions.
Democratic states are different, but they all have common unifying features:
Democracy - that is, recognition of the people as the source of power, the sovereign (from the French SOUVERAIN - the bearer of supreme power in the state);
Government is based on the consent of the governed;
Majority rule; recognition of a subordinate minority to the majority while respecting the interests and opinions of the minority;
Guarantees of fundamental human rights;
Free and fair elections;
Equality before the law;
Fair trial;
Constitutional limitation of government;
Social, economic, ideological and political pluralism;
Values of cooperation and compromise.
Eat different shapes rule of democratic regimes. Quite common forms of republican government are presidential republic and parliamentary republic.
Distinctive feature presidential A republic is that the president in it simultaneously acts as both the head of state and the head of government (the United States is a striking example). The main distinguishing feature parliamentary A republic is the formation of a government on a parliamentary basis (usually by a parliamentary majority) and its formal responsibility to parliament. Parliament performs a number of functions in relation to the government: forms and supports it; issues laws adopted by the government for execution; asserts the state budget and thereby establishes the financial framework for government activities; exercises control over the government and, if necessary, can express a vote of no confidence in it, which entails either the resignation of the government or the dissolution of parliament and the holding of early elections.
Modern democracy is the representation of interests, not classes. All citizens in a democratic state are equal as participants in political life. Equality is of two kinds - equality before the laws and equality of political rights. A modern democratic state is a legal state, in which the separation of three powers has been implemented in practice and real mechanisms have been created to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens.
Of course, a democratic regime has its problems: excessive social stratification of society, at times a kind of dictatorship of democracy (authoritarian rule of the majority), and in some historical conditions this regime leads to a weakening of power, disruptions of order, even a slide into anarchy, ochlocracy, and sometimes creates a condition for the existence destructive, extremist, separatist forces. But still, the social value of a democratic regime is much higher than some of its negative specific historical forms.
It should also be borne in mind that a democratic regime often appears in those states where the social struggle reaches a high intensity and the ruling elite, the ruling strata of society are forced to make concessions to the people, other social forces, and agree to compromises in the organization and exercise of state power.
The democratic regime in the structure of states becomes the most adequate to the new problems that the current state of civilization poses to humanity with its global problems, contradictions, and possible crises.
3. Liberal political regime
Liberal regimes exist in many countries. Its significance is such that some scientists believe that the liberal regime is not actually a regime for the exercise of power, but a condition for the existence of civilization itself at a certain stage of its development, even the final result, which ends the entire evolution of the political organization of society, most effective form such an organization. But it is difficult to agree with the last statement, since at present time is running the evolution of political regimes and even such a form as the liberal democratic regime. New trends in the development of civilization, the desire of man to escape from environmental, nuclear and other disasters give rise to new forms of defining state power, for example, the role of the UN is increasing, international forces are emerging rapid response, contradictions between the rights of man and nations, peoples, etc. are growing.
In the theory of state and law, political methods and methods of exercising power that are based on a system of the most democratic and humanistic principles are also called liberal.
These principles primarily characterize the economic sphere of relations between the individual and the state. Under a liberal regime in this area, a person has property, rights and freedoms, is economically independent and on this basis becomes politically independent. In relation to the individual and the state, priority remains with the individual, etc.
“The liberal regime defends the value of individualism, contrasting it with collectivist principles in the organization of political and economic life, which, according to a number of scientists, ultimately lead to totalitarian forms of government. The liberal regime is determined, first of all, by the needs of the commodity-money, market organization of the economy. The market requires equal, free, independent partners. A liberal state proclaims the formal equality of all citizens. In a liberal society, freedom of speech, opinions, forms of ownership is proclaimed, and space is given to private initiative. Individual rights and freedoms are not only enshrined in the constitution, but also become enforceable in practice.” 3
Under liberalism, state power is formed through elections, the outcome of which depends not only on the opinion of the people, but also on the financial capabilities of certain parties necessary to conduct election campaigns. Public administration is carried out on the basis of the principle of separation of powers. A system of “checks and balances” helps reduce opportunities for abuse of power. Government decisions are made by majority vote.
Decentralization is used in public administration: the central government takes upon itself to resolve only those issues that the local government cannot resolve.
Of course, one should not apologize the liberal regime, since it also has its own problems, the main ones being social protection certain categories of citizens, stratification of society, actual inequality of starting opportunities, etc. The most effective use of this regime becomes possible only in a society characterized by a high level of economic and social development. The population must have a sufficiently high political, intellectual and moral consciousness, and legal culture. At the same time, it should be noted that liberalism today is the most attractive and desirable political regime for many states. A liberal regime can only exist on a democratic basis; it grows out of the democratic regime itself.
4. Non-democratic regimes
Non-democratic regimes are divided into two types:
The concept of totalitarianism comes from the Latin words “TOTALITAS” - integrity, completeness and “TOTALIS” - whole, complete, whole. Usually, totalitarianism is understood as a political regime based on the desire of the country's leadership to subordinate the way of life of people to one, undividedly dominant idea and to organize the political system of power so that it helps to implement this idea.
“The first totalitarian regimes were formed after the First World War in countries that belonged to the “second echelon of industrial development.” Italy and Germany were extremely totalitarian states. The formation of political totalitarian regimes became possible at the industrial stage of human development, when not only comprehensive control over an individual, but also total control of his consciousness, especially during periods of socio-economic crises, became technically possible.” 4
The very concept of a “totalitarian regime” was developed in the works of a number of German thinkers of the 19th century: G. Hegel, K. Marx, F. Nietzsche and some other authors. And yet, as a complete, formalized political phenomenon, totalitarianism matured in the first half of the 20th century. Thus, we can say that the totalitarian regime is a product of the twentieth century.
Totalitarian regimes are those in which:
there is a mass party (with a rigid, paramilitary structure, claiming the complete subordination of its members to the symbols of faith and their exponents - the leaders, the leadership as a whole), this party merges with the state and concentrates real power in society;
The party is not organized in a democratic way - it is built around a leader. Power comes down - from the leader, and not up - from the masses.
the role of ideology dominates. A totalitarian regime is an ideological regime that always has its own “Bible”. The ideology of the regime is also reflected in the fact that the political leader determines the ideology
totalitarianism is built on monopoly control of production and the economy, as well as similar control of all other spheres of life, including education, the media, etc.
Under totalitarianism there is terrorist police control. The police exist in different regimes, however, under totalitarianism no one will prove guilt in order to kill a person.
Some of the above features of one or another totalitarian state regime developed, as already noted, in ancient times, but most of them could not be fully formed in pre-industrial society. Only in the 20th century. they acquired qualities of a universal nature and together made it possible for the dictators who came to power in Italy in the 20s, in Germany and the Soviet Union in the 30s, to transform the political regimes of power into totalitarian ones.
Some scientists such as Heidenberg, Karl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, argued that the totalitarian regime does not change, it can only be destroyed from the outside. They assured that all totalitarian states were perishing, just as the Nazi regime perished in Germany. Subsequently, life showed that this aspect was wrong: totalitarian regimes are capable of changing and evolving.
Depending on the dominant ideology, totalitarianism is usually divided into communism, fascism and national socialism.
Communism (socialism) presupposes the absolute power of the state, the complete elimination of private property and, therefore, all personal autonomy. Despite the predominantly totalitarian forms of political organization, the socialist system also has humane political goals. Thus, in the USSR the level of education of the people sharply increased, their share of scientific and cultural achievements became accessible, social protection of the population was ensured, the economy, space and military industries developed, the crime rate sharply decreased, and for decades the system almost did not resort to mass repression.
Fascism is a right-wing extremist political movement that arose in the context of the revolutionary processes that swept the countries of Western Europe after the First World War and the victory of the revolution in Russia. It was first established in Italy in 1922. Fascism claims to restore or purify the “people's soul”, ensuring a collective identity on cultural or ethnic grounds. By the end of the 30s, the fascist regime had established itself not only in Italy, but also in Germany, Portugal, Spain and a number of countries in Eastern and Central Europe. With all its national characteristics, fascism was the same everywhere: it expressed the interests of the most reactionary circles of capitalist society, who provided financial and political support to fascist movements, seeking to use them to suppress the revolutionary uprisings of the working masses, preserve the existing system and realize their imperial ambitions in the international arena.
The third type of totalitarianism is National Socialism. As a real political and social system, it arose in Germany in 1933. Goal: world domination of the Aryan race and social preference - the German nation. If in communist systems aggressiveness is directed primarily inward - against one’s own citizens (the class enemy), then in National Socialism it is directed outward, against other peoples.
A variety of totalitarianism are regimes where a “cult of personality” is carried out, the cult of a leader - infallible, wise, caring. In fact, it turns out that this is only a form of government in which the power-hungry, sometimes pathological ambitions of certain political leaders are realized.
One of the most common types of political systems in history is authoritarianism, which occupies an intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy. What it usually has in common with totalitarianism is the autocratic nature of power, not limited by laws, and with democracy - the presence of autonomous public spheres not regulated by the state, especially the economy and private life, and the preservation of elements of civil society.
autocracy (autocracy) or a small number of power holders: they can be one person (monarch, tyrant) or a group of people (military junta, oligarchic group, etc.);
unlimited power, its uncontrollability by citizens. At the same time, the government can rule with the help of laws, but it adopts them at its own discretion. “The people in such regimes are actually removed from the formation of state power and control over its activities.” 5
reliance (real or potential) on strength. This regime may not resort to massive repression and may be popular among the general population, but it has sufficient power to use force at its discretion if necessary and force citizens to obey.
monopolization of power and politics, prevention of political opposition and competition: the existence of a limited number of parties, trade unions and other organizations is possible, but only if they are under the control of the authorities;
refusal of total control over society, non-interference in non-political spheres and, above all, in the economy. The government is primarily concerned with ensuring its own security, public order, defense, and foreign policy, although it can influence the strategy of economic development and pursue a fairly active social policy without destroying the mechanisms of market self-government;
recruiting the political elite by introducing new members into the elected body without holding additional elections, through appointment from above, rather than competitive electoral struggle
The weaknesses of authoritarianism are the complete dependence of politics on the position of the head of state or a group of senior leaders, the lack of opportunities for citizens to prevent political adventures or arbitrariness, and the limited political expression of public interests.
However, this regime also has a number of advantages, such as: a high ability to ensure political stability and public order, mobilize public resources to solve certain problems, overcome the resistance of political opponents and this makes it a fairly effective means of carrying out radical social reforms.
Authoritarian regimes are very diverse: these are monarchies, dictatorial regimes, military juntas, populist systems of government, etc. Monarchies are already a disappearing category of authoritarian regimes, and today in Europe they are, in principle, parliamentary democracies. But when they talk about monarchism as a subtype of authoritarian states, they mean monarchies in the least developed countries, where monarchs are the actual rulers (Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia). Under military rule, political activity is either completely prohibited or limited: the military takes power and rules the country.
In recent decades, authoritarian political systems have very often used some democratic institutions - elections, plebiscites, etc. - to gain respectability in the eyes of the international community and its own citizens, to evade international sanctions. For example, non-competitive or semi-competitive elections have been used by authoritarian or semi-authoritarian regimes in Mexico, Brazil, South Korea and Kazakhstan, and many other states. A distinctive feature of such elections is limited or only visible competition (when all candidates are pleasing to the authorities), complete or partial control by the authorities of their official results. At the same time, the authorities have many ways to ensure a formal victory: a monopoly on the media, weeding out undesirable persons at the stage of nominating candidates, direct falsification of ballots or voting results, etc.
Thus, I would like to note once again that authoritarianism is characterized by:
Autocracy.
Unlimited power.
Relying on strength.
Monopolization of power and politics.
Refusal of total control.
Recruitment of the political elite.
CONCLUSION.
As we see, the concept of “political regime”, as well as the classification of political regimes, have not been lost in modern days its relevance. They require development in accordance with modern conditions in the world.
In the literature concerning this issue, there is no unified approach to understanding the term “political regime”. As already mentioned, there is no consensus on the classification of political regimes. The issue of classifying political regimes has always been very difficult. Different authors have different opinions on this matter.
When writing this work, a fairly common classification in the theory of state and law was used, according to which regimes were divided into four types - democratic, liberal, authoritarian and totalitarian. But I wanted I would like to point out that in addition to the four political regimes listed above (democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian, liberal), there are many other regimes that are varieties of these four regimes (for example, despotic and tyrannical regimes have been known since ancient times, there are transitional and emergency regimes, which, as a rule, are temporary nature).
Over the past 20 years, a lot of undemocratic: totalitarian and authoritarian regimes have collapsed or transformed into democratic republics or states on a democratic basis . The general disadvantage of non-democratic political systems is that they were not controlled by the people, which means that the nature of their relationships with citizens depends, first of all, on the will of the rulers. In past centuries, the possibility of arbitrariness on the part of authoritarian rulers was significantly restrained by the traditions of government, the relatively high education and upbringing of monarchs and aristocracy, their self-control based on religious and moral codes, as well as the opinion of the church and the threat of popular uprisings. In the modern era, many of these factors have disappeared or their effect has been greatly weakened. Therefore, only a democratic form of government can reliably curb power and guarantee the protection of citizens from state arbitrariness. For those peoples who are ready for individual freedom and responsibility, limiting their own selfishness, respect for the law and human rights, democracy truly creates the best opportunities for individual and social development, the realization of humanistic values: freedom, equality, justice, social creativity.
One of the countries on the path of transition from one political regime (totalitarian) to another (democratic) is Russia. Our country has followed the path of rapid political and economic implementation of the Western liberal model of democracy, along the path of so-called shock therapy. However, in Russia at that time there were no long-term traditions of a market economy and individualistic culture characteristic of the West; Soviet society was deeply different from Western democracies in almost total militarization, super-centralization and super-monopolization of the economy, its inability to any competition; the predominance of collectivist values in the popular consciousness, the multi-ethnic composition of the population, the absence of mass democratic movements capable of forming an alternative political elite to the nomenklatura, etc. As a result, we are going through difficult times; the liberal model of democratization has led to political anarchy, undermining the motivation of productive labor, a sharp rise in prices and a decline in the standard of living of the population. It is obvious that for Russia the optimal model of political and economic reform can be found only by carefully taking into account its own specifics and world experience, pursuing an active state policy in order to form a more dynamic and humane society.
In conclusion, I would like to note that, as we have seen, the situation in the world community at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries indicates that anti-democratic regimes have historically and politically outlived their usefulness. The world must move to democracy as a more necessary political regime. There was already an example in the 20th century when the contradictions between two totalitarian regimes led to war.
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| Comparison lines | Mode Types | ||
| Democratic | totalitarian | Authoritarian | |
| Legal principle | |||
| Rights and freedoms | |||
| Type economic system | |||
| Ideology | |||
| Examples |
| Comparison lines | Mode Types | ||
| Democratic | totalitarian | Authoritarian | |
| Social base (the regime is based on ....) | Relying on the majority | Reliance on mass underclass movements | Reliance on traditional social institutions |
| State structure(degree of mutual control between government and society) | Constitutional state | Complete state control over society | Reliance on traditions, strict control of certain sectors |
| Party system (presence and number of parties in the country) | Multi-party system | One party system | The ruling party has been nationalized |
| Presence (absence) of opposition | Operates legally | Denied | Activities are strictly limited |
| Legal principle | Everything that is not prohibited is permitted | Everything that is not permitted is prohibited | Everything is allowed except politics |
| Rights and freedoms | Guarantee of rights and freedoms. The law protects the individual | The law protects the state. Declaration of rights and freedoms | Restriction of rights and freedoms. The law protects the state |
| Participation of citizens in the formation of government bodies | Participation of citizens in the formation of government | Ostentatious merger of power and society | Alienation from the power of citizens |
| Type of economic system | Mixed | Centralized, militarized, strict production discipline | State the sector coexists with the market |
| Ideology | Pluralism | The only one | The official one dominates. other ideologies are possible |
| Powers of punitive authorities | Subject to the law | Permeate all spheres, political investigation, repression | Important element state apparatus |
| Examples | Direct, plebiscitary, representative democracy (Sweden) | Italian fascism, German national socialism, Soviet socialism, Chinese Maoism, Kampuchean “pure” communism of Pol Pot | Bourgeois, socialist, military regimes (Pinochet in Chile, Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran, etc. |
Democracy.
Democracy– a political regime in which democracy, the rights and freedoms of citizens are established and implemented, and public control over the state is exercised.
Signs of democracy:
The people are the source of power - Election of government bodies
Rights and freedoms of citizens - Subordination of the minority to the majority
Weakness of democracy:
The people cannot always directly influence the government, but only through representatives.
Democracy can degenerate into anarchy and dictatorship.
Types of democracy:
Liberal democracy - Parliamentary democracy
Features of liberal democracy:
Human rights are superior to state rights - Respect for minority rights
Multi-party system - Separation of powers - Rule of law - Pluralism
Totalitarianism.
Totalitarianism- a political regime in which the state exercises complete control over the individual.
Signs of totalitarianism:
One-party system - Single ideology
Leaderism - Suppression civil rights and freedoms
Subordination of the legislative power to the executive power - The leading role of law enforcement agencies
Suppression of opposition - Repression
Military junta - the political regime of a military dictatorship established as a result of a coup d'etat, and not necessarily in a Spanish-speaking country - the Greek military junta ("black colonels") or the Myanmar junta.
Historical forms of political regimes:
- Asian despotism- a form of autocratic unlimited power
- Tyranny- a form of state power established by force and based on individual rule
1. Despotic regime(from Greek despotea- unlimited power). This regime is characteristic of an absolute monarchy. In despotism, power is exercised exclusively by one person. But since in fact a despot cannot rule alone, he is forced
delegate some managerial affairs to another person who enjoys special confidence in him (in Russia these were Malyuta Skuratov, Menshikov, Arakcheev). In the East it is
the face was called vizier The despot certainly left behind him punitive And tax functions. The will of the despot is arbitrary and sometimes manifests itself not only as autocracy, but also how tyranny. The main thing in a despotic state is obedience, execution of the will of the ruler. But there is a force capable of resisting the will of a despot, this is religion,
it is also binding on the sovereign.
Characteristic of despotism brutal suppression of any independence, discontent, indignation and even disagreement of those in power. The sanctions applied in this case are shocking in their severity, and they, as a rule, do not correspond to what was done, and are determined arbitrarily. The main sanction most often used is the death penalty. At
In this case, the authorities strive for its visibility in order to sow fear among the people and ensure their obedience. The despotic regime is characterized complete lack of rights
subjects. The lack of basic rights and freedoms reduces them to the status of cattle. It can only be a matter of satisfaction physiological needs, and even then not to the fullest extent.
2. Tyrannical regime(from Greek - tormentor) is installed usually, in territory subject to military conquest. It is based on individual rule, but is characterized by the presence institute of governor, and not a trusted institution
person (vizier). The power of a tyrant is cruel. In an effort to suppress resistance, he executes not only for expressed disobedience, but also for discovered intent in this regard, i.e. preventively, to spread fear among the population. Mastery of the territory and population of another country is usually associated with physical and moral violence not only against people, but also against the customs of the people. When new rulers introduce orders that are contrary to the way of life and thoughts of people, especially if they impose other religious norms, the people
experiences tyrannical power very hard (Ottoman Empire). Laws do not work because tyrannical authorities, as a rule, do not have time to create them.
3. Totalitarian regime(from Late Lat. - complete, whole, comprehensive) otherwise it can be called all-encompassing power. The economic basis of totalitarianism is large
own: feudal, monopolistic, state. A totalitarian state is characterized by the presence one official ideology. The set of ideas about social life set by the ruling elite. Among such representations stands out main “historical” idea: religious (in Iraq, Iran), communist (in former USSR: the current generation will live under communism), economic (in China: to catch up and overtake the West through a great leap), patriotic or sovereign, etc. Moreover, the idea is formulated so popularly and simply that it can be understood and accepted for leadership by all layers of society, even the most uneducated. Sincere support of the authorities by the population contributes to state monopoly on the media. Exists one ruling party which declares itself to be the leading force in society. Since this batch gives ≪the most correct settings≫, the reins of government are given into her hands: what happens is merging of the party and state apparatuses. Totalitarianism is characterized extreme centrism. The center of a totalitarian system is leader. His position
akin to the divine. He is declared to be the wisest, infallible, fair, tirelessly thinking about the good of the people. Any critical attitude towards him is brutally persecuted. Against the backdrop of this is happening strengthening the power of executive bodies. Among government bodies, the “power fist” stands out (police, state security agencies, prosecutor’s office, etc.). Punitive authorities are constantly growing, since they are the ones who have to use violence in the nature of terror- physical and mental. Installed control over all spheres of society: political, economic, personal, etc., and therefore life in such a state becomes like behind a glass partition. The individual is limited in rights and freedoms, although formally they can even be proclaimed. One of the main characteristics of totalitarianism
One of the main characteristics of totalitarianism is militarization. The idea of military danger, of a “besieged fortress” is necessary to unite society according to the principle of a military camp. A totalitarian regime is aggressive in its essence and does not mind profiting at the expense of other countries and peoples (Iraq, the former USSR). Aggression helps to achieve several goals at once: to distract people from thoughts about their plight, to get rich,
satisfy the leader's vanity. Western Europe experienced the totalitarian regime in
Middle Ages (religious totalitarianism). Currently, it exists in many Asian countries, in the recent past - in the USSR and Eastern European countries.
4. Fascist(racist) regime (from Latin - bundle, bundle, association) differs from totalitarianism in that it is involved in nationalist (racist, chauvinistic) ideology, which elevated to the rank of state. The main premise of fascist ideology is this: people are by no means equal before the law, their rights and responsibilities depend on their nationality. One nation is declared leading in the state or even in the world
community, and therefore worthy of better living conditions. The existence of other nations is allowed, but in auxiliary roles. Fascism, being “concerned” with the fate of the world community, proposes a chosen nation as a leader not only in its own state. Chauvinistic (racist) circles first express only the desire to “ennoble” the whole world with this nation, and then often begin to put their plans into practice: they begin aggression against other countries. Militarization, search for an external enemy, tendency to start wars and, finally, military expansion differ significantly
fascism from totalitarianism, which seeks enemies within the state and turns the full power of the punitive apparatus on them. These are the main distinguishing features of fascism. In other respects, it is similar to totalitarianism, and therefore many consider fascism to be a kind of totalitarianism. The similarity between these two types of political regime is also evident in genocide.
5. Authoritarian regime(from Lat. - imperious), although in comparison with the types of regime discussed above it is softer, it still cannot be classified as a regime in which people can breathe freely. In an authoritarian regime, power not formed And not controlled by the people. Despite the fact that there are representative bodies, in reality they do not play any role in the state, but exist only for decoration, to give the government a certain civility; elections are held, but formally. In reality, life in the country is guided by will the ruling elite, which does not limit itself by law, but lives by its own rules. Stands out within the ruling elite leader. His influence is very significant, but unlike the leader, he is not inclined to make decisions alone. A strong personality usually becomes a leader. In an authoritarian state management is overly centralized. Local initiatives are not allowed unless permission is received from the center. This is why an authoritarian state relies on the police and military apparatus(Spain during the reign of Franco, Chile during the reign of Pinochet). The court in such a state is an auxiliary instrument. Also widely used extrajudicial
methods of reprisal(mental hospitals, deportation abroad).
Opposition is not allowed under an authoritarian regime. Several parties can participate in political life, but they must follow the line developed by the ruling party, otherwise they will be dispersed. The individual does not enjoy constitutional rights and freedoms, even if they are proclaimed on paper. It is also deprived of security guarantees in relations with the authorities. Full priority of state interests over personal ones. Against the background of the absolute control of the authoritarian state in the political sphere, there is relative freedom in
other spheres, especially in the spiritual. Thus, an authoritarian state, unlike a totalitarian one, no longer strives for an all-encompassing regulation of social life.
6. Liberal regime(from Latin - free) exists in those countries where market relations have developed. Historically, it arose as a reaction to excessive regulation of public life and is based on liberal ideology,
the basis of which is the requirement limiting state interference in the private lives of citizens to a minimum. Market relations, characteristic of a developed bourgeois state, can only exist between equal and independent subjects. The liberal state precisely proclaims formal equality of all citizens. Actual equality in conditions of non-intervention by the state social sphere not yet and cannot be. Proclaimed freedom of speech. Pluralism of opinions often looks like freethinking and even connivance (attitude
to sexual minorities, to the role of women in society). Economic basis
is private property. The state exempts producers from guardianship,
does not interfere in the economic activities of people, but only establishes a general framework for free competition among commodity producers. It also acts as an arbiter in
resolving disputes between them. The liberal regime allows for the existence opposition.
Moreover, with sustainable liberalism, measures are taken to cultivate it and even provide financial support (for example, shadow cabinets in parliaments). Multi-party system- a necessary attribute of a liberal society. Government bodies are formed by elections, the outcome of which depends not only from the opinion of the people, but also from financial
opportunities certain parties or individual candidates. Public administration carried out on the basis the principle of separation of powers. System of checks and balances
reduces the possibility of abuse of power. Government decisions are made mainly by majority vote. Public administration and legal regulation are carried out on the basis decentralization: The central government takes upon itself to resolve only those issues that the local government, the organizations themselves and citizens cannot resolve. A liberal regime exists in developed countries of Europe, the USA and Japan and others, characterized by a high level of economic, political and social development. Russia is just beginning to enter the era of liberalism.
7. Democratic regime(from the Greek - democracy) is in many ways the regime of the future. Some developed countries (Sweden, Finland, Norway) have come close to it. He
provides citizens broad rights and freedoms, and also provides the socio-economic basis for their implementation by all citizens. In a democratic state the source of power is the people. Representative bodies and officials in the state are also elected here, but the criterion for election is not political, but their professional quality. Wide development of associative connections at all levels of public life (movements, associations, unions, sections, clubs, societies, etc.) contributes to the transformation of a nation-state into a civilization-state. Referendums, plebiscites, popular initiatives, discussions become the norm of life. Along with
created with government system of bodies for direct participation of citizens in managing the affairs of the society (councils, public committees, etc.) - When making decisions The interests of the minority are also taken into account. Regulatory regulation is acquiring a qualitatively new character: along with law as the main social regulator
In the life of a liberal society, morality is becoming increasingly important. Humanism and morality are the hallmarks of a democratic state. Democracy is the phenomenon of a highly organized civil society. To establish it, the following prerequisites are necessary: high economic development And high level the welfare of people, most of whom are owners; high level of development of representative institutions and political consciousness of people, their significant
cultural level, readiness for cooperation, compromise and agreement.
Functions of the state- these are the main directions of its activities, expressing the essence and purpose of the state in society.
State machine(state mechanism) is a hierarchical
a system of government bodies that carry out practical work to implement the functions of the state.
The cell, the unit of the state apparatus is government agency It differs very significantly, for example, from political parties, economic organizations, and socio-cultural institutions.
Firstly, the government body is called upon carry out management activities, meeting the interests of, if not all, then many citizens.
Secondly, he is endowed competence, i.e., a range of goals and objectives.
Thirdly, it has authority in a certain area of public life. Authority is the right to give instructions (specific, or individual, or normative) that are binding.
Fourthly, for violations of orders of the competent state bodies, penalties may be applied. sanctions, i.e. adverse consequences (fine, deprivation
freedom, confiscation of property, etc.).
Fifthly, each state body has: a) state, government property,
which is under its operational management; b) financial resources(your own bank account), the main source of which is the state budget; c) established for him
organizational structure, related to it system of official subordination and official discipline.
Along with the political system, the concept of “political regime” is often used. Mode (from lat. regimen- “governance”) means a set of ways of exercising political power. Today, the most common classification is according to which all regimes are divided into: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic.
Totalitarian regime. The term "totalitarianism" comes from the Latin word "totalis", which means “whole, complete, entire.” A totalitarian regime is complete control by the authorities over all spheres of public life. The term “totalitarian” was borrowed from D. Gentile and introduced into the political lexicon by the leader of the Italian fascists B. Mussolini (1883–1945). Totalitarianism as a type political system arose in the 20th century. Why? This is due to the entry of society into the industrial stage of development, which led to the creation of a system of mass communications and made total brainwashing and comprehensive control over the individual technically possible. What are the most characteristic features of a totalitarian regime?
Universal control and violence. The government controls all spheres of society: the economy, culture, religion, and the private life of citizens. Under totalitarianism, the dominant slogan is: “Everything is prohibited except what is ordered.”
The monopoly of one party on power, unrestricted by any law. Only one party can exist legally. In the USSR - CPSU ( communist party Soviet Union), in fascist Germany - NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party).
The merging of the party and state apparatus, when the same people are at the head of the party and the state.
The cult of a leader endowed with almost unlimited powers.
The actual alienation of citizens from the political process, the maximum limitation of their rights and freedoms.
Transformation of violence into the main means of political struggle. People disliked by the regime are subjected to physical destruction (political processes of the 30s in the USSR).
The dominance of one ideology, developed by the highest bodies of the ruling party and introduced into the mass consciousness of the entire society. The ideology of building a communist future dominated in the USSR, and the 1000-year Reich in Germany.
The internal essence of this regime was very figuratively characterized by the American political scientist R. Daniels: “Not a single thought, not a single person is free from the control of the state and its bodies, nothing is free from the tutelage of the party in power.”
There are several types of totalitarianism:
left - communist (USSR under Stalin, China led by Mao Zedong);
right - fascism (Italy led by Mussolini), national socialism (Germany under Hitler).
Today, a striking example of the existence of a totalitarian regime is the DPRK, led by the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, Kim Jong-un.
One of the most common types of political regimes in history is authoritarianism (from lat. auctoritas- “power”, “influence”). Authoritarian regimes in their development can be guided by both totalitarianism and democracy.
The bearer of power is one person or group of persons whose actions are beyond the control of other government bodies.
Limiting the election of government bodies, weakening the prerogatives of parliament. The actual rejection of the concept of separation of powers.
Real or potential reliance on power. This regime may not resort to mass repression and may be popular among the general population. However, he has enough power to use force if necessary and force citizens to obey.
Recruitment (nomination) of the political elite through appointment from above, and not on the basis of alternative struggle.
Refusal of total control over society. The main slogan is: “Everything is allowed except politics.”
Modemilitary rule. This type most often arises as a result of a coup d'etat and the military coming to power (dictatorship of the “black colonels” in Greece 1967–1975, A. Pinochet in Chile 1973–1989).
TheocraticEsky mode. This type occurs when power in the country belongs to a religious-fanatical clan. This regime emerged in Iran after the 1979 revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini (1979–1989)
Absolute monarchy, where the fullness of legislative and executive power belongs to one person holding the post of head of state by inheritance (Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar).
An authoritarian regime that is personalized in nature, which presupposes the presence of a strong leader with dictatorial powers (the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq 1979–2003, M. Gaddafi in Libya 1969–2011).
The concept of “democracy” is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as the power of the people ( demo s - “people”, kratos- "power"). According to the definition of American President A. Lincoln, democracy is “government of the people, chosen by the people and for the people.”
The main features of a democratic regime include:
The sovereignty of the people, recognition of it as the source of supreme state power.
Carrying out free alternative elections, constant and real functioning of government bodies elected by the people (in the center and locally).
Existence of legal opposition.
Political and ideological pluralism, the presence of a truly functioning multi-party system.
Compliance with the principle of separation of powers in the system of government into executive, legislative and judicial.
Transparency in the work of authorities at all levels.
The rule of law in all spheres of society. The main slogan of this political regime is: “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.”
Considering democracy as the most perfect form of political regime, one should not overestimate its capabilities. In this regard, it is worth noting the words of W. Churchill: “democracy is a terrible thing, but humanity has not yet come up with anything better than it.”
Classification of democratic regimes:
Direct democracy. Direct participation of citizens in the preparation, discussion, decision-making and monitoring of their implementation. Existed in the period of Antiquity, Greek city policies.
Plebiscitary. Today we find its reflection in referendums. Referendums also entered the political life of sovereign Belarus (May 14, 1995, November 24, 1996, October 17, 2004)
Representative. Indirect participation of citizens in decision-making, in the election of their representatives to government bodies, designed to express their interests, pass laws and give orders (elections of deputies to the lower house of the Parliament of the Republic of Belarus - the House of Representatives - September 23, 2012).
Each state consistently and gradually moves from one type of regime to another.
State (political) regimes, depending on the set of methods and means of state power, are divided into democratic and anti-democratic.
Democratic regime – is a way of exercising state power, the characteristic features of which are: the formation of government bodies by election; political pluralism, guaranteed existence of political rights and freedoms of citizens.
The concept of “democracy” means, as is well known, democracy, the power of the people. However, the situation in which all the people would exercise political power, but has not yet been implemented anywhere. It is rather an ideal, something that everyone should strive for.
Signs of a democratic regime:
· recognition of the people as the main source of state power;
· freedom of enterprise and recognition of private property;
· real guarantee of human rights and freedoms;
· exercise of state power based on the principle of separation of powers;
· decentralization of state power;
· a real opportunity for citizens to participate in the formation of state bodies and control over their activities;
· absence of a generally binding official ideology, multi-party system, freedom of opinion and belief;
· presence of legal opposition.
The types of democratic regime are:
1. Liberal democratic regime.
Exists in those countries where market relations have developed. Examples include the industrialized countries of Europe and the United States. This regime is now being established in Russia. A liberal state not only proclaims rights and freedoms, but also promotes their enjoyment. In a liberal state there are many parties of various political orientations, including opposition ones. Government bodies are formed on the basis of free elections, when each person is given the right to express his opinion regarding a particular candidate.
Government carried out on the basis of the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. This is what reduces the possibility of abuse of power.
2. Proper democratic regime.
This is a more developed and freer regime for people. The Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Finland, Norway) have come close to it. Main distinctive features such a regime are: a solution to many government issues by taking into account the opinion of the people expressed in referendums, during polls, with the help of popular initiatives; high standard of living, humanism and morality of people.
Anti-democratic regimes.
Among the anti-democratic regimes most often called totalitarian and authoritarian.
1. Totalitarian regime.
The term “totalitarian” translated from Latin means “whole”, “whole”, “complete” was introduced into political circulation by B. Mussolini in 1925 to characterize the fascist movement. Like a political regime totalitarianism represents comprehensive state control over the population, all forms and spheres of social life and is based on the systematic use of violence or the threat of its use.
The totalitarian regime existed in the former USSR, now in Cuba, in North Korea, Iraq. The essence of a totalitarian regime is manifested in the control of power over all aspects of human life. Not only a person’s views on the social structure are controlled, but even his personal life. And if a person’s beliefs do not coincide with the guidelines of the authorities, then coercive measures are applied to him. Let us remember that, for example, Alexander Solzhenitsyn served a prison sentence in Stalin's camps only because he wrote a letter to a friend from the front, where he doubted the correctness of Stalin’s policies.
The center of a totalitarian system is the leader. His position is akin to divine. He is declared to be the wisest and most infallible, fair, constantly thinking about the good of the people.
In a totalitarian state, a person’s rights and freedoms are limited, although formally they can be proclaimed in the constitution.
Fascism is considered a type of totalitarianism. Its characteristic feature is the oppression of people on ethnic grounds.
Signs of a totalitarian regime:
· ideologization of all public life on the basis of the official ideology for the entire country;
· intolerance of dissent;
· monopoly on information;
· suppression of human individuality, mass terror against the population;
· merger of the state and party apparatus;
· centralization of power (often headed by a leader);
· denial of private life and private property, dominant position of state property.
Such a regime is considered more “democratic” compared to a totalitarian one. Its main specificity is that the state is led by a narrow circle - ruling elite, which is headed by a leader and enjoys great privileges and benefits. Such a regime existed in the USSR during the reign of L. Brezhnev and M. Gorbachev.
Under an authoritarian regime, the authorities do not so openly trample human rights and freedoms. For example, the authorities did not dare to imprison academician Andrei Sakharov for his views, in particular for his condemnation of the war in Afghanistan. A. Sakharov was exiled to the city of Gorky, where he lived in an ordinary city apartment, but under the constant control of the KGB, without the right to leave the city.
Under authoritarianism, a parliament may exist, but it does not play any role in the state. Really public life directed by the party (religious) leadership. The decisions of the central government do not take into account the opinion of the people, and therefore coercion must be used to implement them. That is why in such a state the power of punitive agencies (police, security agencies) and the army is strong.
· the power of the elite is not limited by law;
· the people are removed from government and cannot control the activities of the ruling elite;
· in political life the existence of a multi-party system is allowed, but in reality there are no opposition parties;
· the presence of spheres free from political control - the economy and private life. The political sphere is mainly subject to control;
· priority of state interests over personal interests.
In addition to the above types of anti-democratic regimes, there are other types:
3. Despotic regime.
It existed, for example, in Egypt during the time of the pharaohs, in Babylon, in Assyria, in Russia under Ivan the Terrible.
In despotism, power is exercised exclusively by one person. The despot entrusts some administrative affairs to another person who enjoys special confidence in him (for example, a vizier in the East). The will of the despot is arbitrary, and sometimes autocracy borders on tyranny. The main thing in a despotic state is obedience, fulfillment of the will of the ruler.
Under despotism, any independence, discontent, indignation and disagreement of the ruled are brutally suppressed. The sanctions applied in this case shock the imagination with their severity (hanging in the square, stoning, burning, quartering, wheeling, etc.). The authorities strive for visibility in the application of punishment in order to sow fear and ensure obedience.
A despotic regime is characterized by complete lack of rights for its subjects.
4. Tyrannical regime.
Based on individual rule and characterized by the presence of a governor. Typically, tyranny was established in the process of territorial conquests (Roman Empire, Ottoman Empire, etc.), accompanied not only by physical and moral violence against people, but also violence against the religion and customs of the people. Thus, in the Ottoman Empire, a part of the population that opposed the spread of Islam was literally slaughtered.
The power of a tyrant is cruel. In an effort to suppress resistance and sow fear among the population, he executes not only for expressed disobedience, but also for discovered intent in this regard. Tyrannical power is perceived by the people as oppression, and the tyrant is perceived as an oppressor, a tormentor.
5.Military regime.
This is a political regime in which the head of the state is a military group (junta), which gained its power as a result of a coup d'etat.
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