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Niccolo Machiavelli on the qualities of a ruler
machiavelli political sovereign
Niccolo Machiavelli (May 3, 1469, Florence - June 21, 1527, ibid.) - Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician. He advocated a strong state power, for the strengthening of which he allowed the use of any means, which was expressed in the famous work "The Sovereign", published in 1532.
Machiavelli tried to create a universal portrait of an ideal ruler who could not only win power, but also dispose of it properly.
Where does the search begin? Despite the fact that sovereigns are above others, Machiavelli looks for vices and virtues precisely among the qualities inherent in ordinary people. The whole world is conditionally divided into two halves: good and evil, embodying positive and negative qualities. If you mix these opposites, then you will get a rich palette of colors, which will display the mysterious and contradictory world that surrounds us. So, positive qualities: generosity, honesty, firmness of spirit, courage, condescension, chastity, straightforwardness, complaisance, piety, etc. .d. The most commendable thing for a sovereign is to combine all the positive qualities listed above, but this is impossible and Machiavelli understands this very well. “But since, by virtue of his nature, a person can neither have virtues alone, nor follow them unswervingly, then a prudent sovereign should avoid those vices that can deprive him of the state, and refrain from the rest to the best of his ability, but no more.” This phrase, which is quite natural in this context, like many others, will be critically perceived by many researchers who negatively assess the concept of "Machiavellianism". But we will return to this later, but for now let's turn to the description of the main qualities that a sovereign should possess.
The first is generosity. The quality is very good, but it is quite difficult to develop. If you are generous in moderation, you can be accused of stinginess. And if you really constantly spend huge sums on charity, you will quickly go bankrupt. Therefore, the most prudent thing to do would be to "reconcile yourself to the glory of a miserly ruler." “For in time, when people see that, thanks to thrift, he (the sovereign) is satisfied with his income and conducts military campaigns without burdening the people with additional taxes, the glory of a generous ruler will be established behind him.” The sovereign must know the sense of proportion. Generosity is simply necessary if you have not yet received power and is possible if you spend someone else's good: "wasting someone else's you add glory to yourself, while wasting your own - you only harm yourself." “Meanwhile, the contempt and hatred of subjects is the very thing that the sovereign should fear most of all, while generosity goes to both.” Here a prime example how a positive quality can turn against its owner.
The second category that Machiavelli considers is the concepts of love and fear. The sovereign must not reckon with accusations of cruelty. "Having committed a few massacres, he will show more mercy than those who indulge in disorder out of excess." But at the same time, you don’t have to be quick to reprisal. You should weigh all the pros and cons and only then make a decision, because. it will not be possible to correct the situation later. If the sovereign must choose between love and fear on the part of his subjects, then it is safer to choose fear. “However, the sovereign must inspire fear in such a way that, if not to acquire love, then at least to avoid hatred, for it is quite possible to inspire fear without hatred.” And in no case should one show kindness towards the troops. Discipline and complete obedience to command are the key to successful combat operations.
Two more remarkable human qualities are loyalty and straightforwardness. But they are not always acceptable to the sovereign. Political struggle is a subtle game, the main rule of which is the ability to cheat. History shows that those rulers who did not always follow their promises and at the right time knew how to fool their opponents around their fingers achieved more. Honesty is not always appropriate. If all the rulers kept their word, then it would be easier, but this is not at all the case. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account specific circumstances and adapt to them. Foreground in this case it is not personal sympathies that come out, but state interests.
In the fight against the enemy, you can be guided by two methods: laws or force. The first of these methods is inherent in man, the second - in the beast. “From here it follows that the sovereign must learn what is contained in the nature of both man and beast.” Machiavelli draws the reader's attention to an interesting example from history: the ancient heroes (Achilles and others) were given to the education of the centaurs. These half-humans-half-beasts, combining two principles in themselves, could convey to their pupils information from a completely various areas knowledge, could develop in them amazing strength and endurance. As a result, no one could defeat these heroes. So, maybe the sovereign should combine two different natures in himself? Machiavelli fully adheres to this opinion. The sovereign must become like two beasts: a lion and a fox, i.e. combine strength and cunning. A reasonable ruler, according to Machiavelli, cannot and should not remain true to his promise if this harms his interests. But at the right moment, he is obliged to show strength and prove his superiority with the help of weapons.
In the eyes of the people, the sovereign must be compassionate, merciful, true to word, sincere and pious. The best thing is if these qualities are not just external, but also reflect the essence of the ruler. However, it should be borne in mind that, if necessary, one must be able to manifest opposite qualities, “that is, ... if possible, do not move away from good, but if necessary, do not shy away from evil.”
So, the sovereign must behave in such a way as not to incur the hatred or contempt of his subjects. Contempt can be aroused by inconstancy, frivolity, effeminacy, cowardice and indecision. Therefore, these qualities must be eliminated. The main danger that is inside the country is the conspirators. In order to avoid their appearance, it is simply necessary to win over your subjects. If the conspirator is alone, he will not risk rebelling against the legitimate sovereign. But if it comes together big number dissatisfied with the government, then the sovereign may lose power. A good state structure is the main component of it sustainable development. In this case, Machiavelli cites the structure of France as an example. The power of the king here is inextricably linked with the activities of parliament. This "beneficial institution" helps to "bridle the strong" and "encourage the weak." As a result, the necessary compromise is reached between the main forces capable of showing their discontent.
In general, the problem of reaching a compromise is very relevant for the internal stability of the state. Let's turn to the Roman emperors. They had to restrain the ambition of the nobility, the wildness of the people, as well as the cruelty and greed of the troops. It is difficult to please all three forces at once, especially considering that they have different interests. Some want a calm, measured life, while others, on the contrary, crave war and cruelty. Again we return to the question of the army and the special attitude towards it on the part of the sovereign. The troops really need to pay a lot of attention, but you can not ignore other subjects. After all, in the final analysis, although the army is privileged, although it constitutes the backbone of government, the common people are much larger in numerical terms. And the majority, as you know, is a powerful force. And it is impossible not to listen to his demands.
Sooner or later, the sovereign faces the question: which enemies are more dangerous for him - internal or external? If the ruler cannot rely on his people, then he needs to have a shelter in case of a possible uprising, for these purposes fortresses are built. If the main threat is external enemies, then the construction of fortresses is not necessary. "The best of all fortresses is not to be hated by the people." What must a sovereign do to be honored? The answer is natural: "Nothing can inspire such respect for the sovereign as military enterprises and extraordinary deeds."
Machiavelli here remains true to his convictions. Military affairs are the basis of the foundations of government. As a new sovereign, who understands this perfectly, is Ferdinand of Aragon, King of Spain. He managed to occupy his subjects with business, and at that time he himself solved external problems. The sovereign is respected if he is capable of decisive actions. And in the confrontation between two states, it is much better to support one of them than to stand aside and do nothing. But at the same time, you should be wary of an alliance with those who are stronger than you, so as not to become dependent.
In addition to military affairs and the improvement of the army, the ruler has a lot of other tasks in domestic politics. He should patronize the arts, develop trade, agriculture and crafts, take care of decorating both individual cities and the entire state. All these components form the basis of the economic, social. political and cultural life of the country. Dignity and grandeur must be present in every act of the sovereign, which will help to strengthen power and avoid unnecessary mistakes.
And of course, a wise ruler cannot do without advisers. He must choose the most worthy people with whom he can consult on various issues. We have already seen that the sovereign is responsible for completely different aspects of the life of the country and citizens, and, therefore, cannot deal with all affairs personally. This is what loyal and devoted subjects, on whom one could rely, will come in handy. “A ruler’s mind is first judged by what kind of people he brings closer to himself.” It should be noted, however, that no matter how smart advisers may be, the last word should always remain with the ruler. After listening to all the advice, he himself must make the only right decision.
The main problem that the sovereign may encounter when communicating with his entourage is great amount flatterers. Such people can always be found in close proximity to the throne. Their speeches are very pleasant, and much effort must be made to ensure that they do not fall under the influence of such cunning people. Real advisers should care about the welfare of the state, and not about personal gain. If the ruler deems it necessary, he himself will render due honors to his faithful comrades-in-arms. But whatever advice is given, those responsible for decision there will be a sovereign. Therefore, he must have the wisdom to bring different opinions to a proper compromise.
So, the portrait of the true sovereign is ready. Machiavelli gradually, step by step, recreated the image of a strong and extraordinary personality who is able to manage the most powerful state. Distinctive feature this image - the desire for the "golden mean". Personal qualities the ruler, if possible, should not go beyond certain limits of what is permitted. Generosity should be moderate, love coexist with fear, and straightforwardness and honesty can easily get along with cunning and even cunning. The sovereign must combine the qualities of a lion and a fox, be able to correctly evaluate the actions and advice of his associates, make strong-willed decisions and, finally, possess natural wisdom. All actions must be performed in the name of state interests and for the benefit of subjects.
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Introduction
The Renaissance liberated society from the church asceticism of the Middle Ages and gave impetus to the development of culture and art. In this era, society moved away from religious values, and science came to the fore, led by man and his activities. Such changes in the structure of society led to the emergence of many great scientists and philosophers, one of whom was the Italian thinker Niccolo Machiavelli.
Living in a rather turbulent era with frequent changes of power and disorderly upheavals, finding many strong and capable military leaders and statesmen, many of whom had him in close proximity, Machiavelli was able to analyze the actions of each of them and, already in adulthood, create an image of an ideal, according to in his opinion, a ruler, all the main characteristics of which he outlined in his work "The Sovereign", published and recognized only 5 years after the death of Machiavelli himself.
The writings of Niccolo Machiavelli are rightfully considered a new stage in the development of the political philosophy of the West, because it was he who was one of the first who ceased to be guided by the principles of morality and religion in thinking about the ways of governing the state, and gave priority to rational and more effective methods of governance and conquest. Many condemned Machiavelli for the sometimes rather cynical and immoral models of political behavior that he put forward as the only true ones. However, in the treatise "The Sovereign" he examines in detail all the consequences of certain decisions taken statesmen different eras, and draws logical conclusions about the most and least effective models of their behavior, which fully justifies his less moral and customary criteria for an ideal sovereign.
1. Conquest of a country with different customs
In the abstract, I propose to consider the most significant provisions put forward by the author of the treatise, despite the fact that each of his thoughts carries an idea worthy of a separate abstract and does not lose its relevance even in modern world thanks to the focus on rationality and efficiency, which is of primary importance in the politics of our time.
In addition to the personality of the ruler, which is the most frequently discussed outcome of Machiavelli's entire work, the author also considers other equally important aspects of politics. For example, what rules should an experienced sovereign follow in order not only to conquer the desired territory, but also to keep it. After all, conquest is only the first step on the way to the complete possession of the state.
Machiavelli says that a military leader, if he invades a country with other customs and culture, should definitely settle in the conquered state in order to recognize the beginning of unrest in time and prevent it. In addition, while living in the country, the ruler can protect it from the robberies of officials, because the citizens will apply directly to him. Thus, the sovereign will only strengthen his position and achieve the recognition of the people. As for the weaker neighbors, who, no doubt, will want to enlist the support of a power replenished with new lands, they, of course, need to be patronized so that at the right time they will come out on your side against strong opponent, however, do not let them grow stronger and develop, because, having gained strength and power, they can pose a threat to the sovereignty of your state.
However, if the ruler does not have the opportunity to move to the conquered country, then the surest way is to destroy it. Machiavelli justifies this by the fact that in a city or a state in which its own customs and laws have existed since ancient times, there will always be a place for rebellion, since citizens will cherish the idea of \u200b\u200bfreedom and the old order and will rebel sooner or later. Whereas, having destroyed the city, or rather its main administration, the inhabitants, who are always accustomed to obey, will hardly be able to re-elect the head of the city themselves and take up arms. Thus, the new ruler will have time to enter into the confidence of the citizens of the city, creating more favorable living conditions than under the old ruler.
2. Three types of conquest
Throughout the work of Machiavelli, one can notice the division of all methods of conquering new states into 3 main ones: conquest by valor, mercy of fate and all sorts of atrocities.
Valor
The first involves the mastery of the state solely with the help of their weapons and military abilities. Machiavelli does not deny the significance of the role happy occasion, which was met on the way by almost all the great conquerors, and, added to their incredible prowess, gave truly great results. N. Machiavelli cites the example of the first founding king of Rome, Romulus, who, perhaps, would have died on the banks of the Tiber River, where he was thrown by his mother's brother Amulius, if the she-wolf had not fed him and the shepherd Faustul had not sheltered him. Thus, by chance, Romulus survived and, having learned his true origin, became the first king of Rome. However, Machiavelli emphasizes that the less the conqueror himself relies on the mercy of fate, the greater his likelihood of success and staying in power. However, the old laws become a stumbling block in the way of all conquerors, guided only by valor and weapons. After all, there is nothing more difficult than the destruction of the old orders and the establishment of new ones, since people tend to "not believe in the new until it is fixed by a long experience," the philosopher says wisely. And only those who do not depend on foreign support and are able to use force themselves at the right time can achieve compliance with new established laws and orders.
By the grace of fate
While it is most difficult for a valiant conqueror to acquire power, for one who becomes a sovereign by the grace of fate, it is the most problematic to retain it. Having received power for money or thanks to the mercy of prudent rulers, they do not know where to apply it and how to save it. Such sovereigns most often do not know how to rule due to the fact that they have been subordinate to someone all their lives, and their lack of valor and strength does not give them the opportunity to learn to command during the reign: at the slightest disturbance, their pardoned power immediately passes to more able and powerful ruler.
atrocities
Therefore, sometimes those who dream of taking over the state have to resort to the use of dishonest, and sometimes even cruel methods of gaining and maintaining power. A logical question is how and why civilians allow such a sovereign to rule and create lawlessness. The thing is that the ruler, who carries out all his atrocities once, and subsequently makes amends for them with good socially useful deeds, can still, after some time, secure the favor of fellow citizens who have not had time to taste the insults, but in his fullness knowing all the sweetness of subsequent good deeds. But to the one who will use dishonorable bloody methods throughout his reign, success never shines, because the masses are characterized by patience, but sooner or later it comes to an end, and then the rebellion cannot be stopped.
3. People and nobility
Studying the people as a socio-cultural community, Machiavelli comes to the conclusion that the most important thing for the people is to live freely, that is, not to be oppressed. And if the sovereign provides this right to his citizens, then they will repay him with devotion and trust. While the nobles have a less innocent goal: they are driven by the desire to rule. That is why, coming to power with the help of the nobility, the ruler dooms himself to a constant struggle, because having played an important role in the fate of the ruler, the nobility perceives him as an obligation, that is, an equal. In this case, the sovereign cannot accept independent decisions, nor fully manage the nobility, and in difficult times it may well destroy the elected sovereign. Therefore, seeking power, the most reliable will be to rely on the people. He does not put the sovereign on an equal footing with himself, and his claims are smaller and easier to fulfill. The main thing is to enlist the friendship of the people and make sure that the people always need their sovereign, then it will be possible to fully and under any circumstances rely on his loyalty.
4. Advisers of the sovereign
Continuing the problem of the nobility and people close to the ruler, Machiavelli notes the importance right choice state advisers. In his opinion, the right adviser should take care exclusively of state affairs and not look for personal gain in them. Such assistants are very valuable and equally rare, so a wise ruler must be able to keep the adviser's devotion, encouraging and increasing his wealth in every possible way. In addition, Machiavelli sees a direct connection between the personality of the sovereign and the minister close to him: “The mind of the ruler is first of all judged by what kind of people he brings closer to himself; if they are loyal and capable people, then you can always be sure of his wisdom ... If, however, they are not such, then they will conclude about the sovereign accordingly ... ". Indeed, every ruler should be able to recognize inept advisers and flatterers. And the most The best way to protect oneself from the latter is to assure people that they will not be punished for truthful words, but rather, on the contrary, will render the ruler a service. However, if everyone gets the opportunity to say whatever he wants to the sovereign himself, then he (the sovereign) will soon lose the respect and reverence of the citizens. Therefore, a wise ruler should choose a few capable ministers and give them the right to speak boldly and honestly on any question asked by the sovereign, and not when they themselves want to speak. Thus, the ruler will always receive good sincere advice on all issues of interest to him and, comparing them, make the right decision.
5. Warfare
And the main decision that every sovereign must make concerns the composition of his troops, since "good laws and a good army serve as the basis of power in all states." Machiavelli proves that of the three types of troops, the most useless and dangerous are allied and mercenary troops, and only one's own army will be a strong and reliable support for the entire state.
Mercenary troops initially cannot be loyal to the sovereign who hires them, as they fight for a salary. The pay is almost always meager, and it alone cannot force soldiers to risk their lives in defense of other people's possessions. In peacetime, mercenaries are happy to serve a foreign ruler, because it does not pose a threat to their lives and replenishes their pocket, but when it comes to war, such troops quickly surrender to the enemy and give way.
The situation with the allied troops is even more precarious: having won a victory over a common enemy, they, under the command of an ally sovereign, will easily seize the possessions of the ruler who called them, because he is left without an army at all. Thus, the allied troops, in any outcome, lead to the collapse of the state. Therefore, N. Machiavelli advises truly wise sovereigns to create their own troops, because "it always happens that other people's armor is either wide, or cramped, or too bulky," as the philosopher says.
But in order for his own troops to serve faithfully and faithfully, the sovereign must be an example for his soldiers and not abandon military exercises either in thought or in deed. As for mental exercises, the sovereign should read the works of the great generals and draw useful knowledge and skills from there, taking one of the famous generals as a model. In addition, he must take a direct part in the life of the troops, go hunting and study the surrounding area for more effective defense in case of a sudden attack and the opportunity to have a military advantage in waging war on a foreign territory, but similar in structure and topography.
6. The personality of the sovereign
One of the most important thoughts of N.Machiavelli is that "the sovereign, if he wants to retain power, must acquire the ability to deviate from goodness and use this ability as needed."
Generosity and stinginess
That is, the philosopher explains, it is good to have the glory of a generous ruler, but sooner or later the funds for excessive charity will run out, and the ruler will have to raise taxes, which will cause a reaction among the people that is the opposite of what the ruler wants. Thus, the more the sovereign tries to pass for being generous, the more objectionable to the people he will ultimately turn out to be. In this case, wouldn't it be better to immediately put up with the glory of a miserly ruler and spend money usefully? Indeed, as a result, the people will appreciate the sovereign's thrift and thank him with devotion and love.
Mercy and cruelty
The situation is similar with such human qualities as mercy and cruelty. Being overly merciful and trusting, the ruler, without stopping riots and robberies, will plunge his state into an atmosphere of devastation and injustice, from which the whole people will suffer. While inflicting cruel reprisals on several individuals objectionable to society, he will appear in the eyes of the people much more merciful and ensure peace in his state for a long period.
Love or fear
Any sovereign wants to be loved, but the people's fear of their ruler is actually more reliable than love. The love of the people is fickle: in peacetime, citizens swear their allegiance to the sovereign, promise not to spare either life or property for the sake of the ruler, however, when hard times come, taxes increase, confiscation of land or property, they will hardly be as filled with love as in former times. Therefore, it is best to preserve the devotion and obedience of the people by instilling fear in them: it is possible to neglect gratitude to the sovereign for the sake of one's own benefit, but it is impossible to ignore the threat of punishment. However, fear can turn into hatred, and to prevent this from happening, Machiavelli advises to observe two basic rules regarding the people: "do not encroach on the property of citizens and subjects and their women ... because people will rather forgive the death of a father than the loss of property."
Lion and fox
As for the fulfillment of his promises, Machiavelli again advises not to indulge in honesty and straightforwardness often, since in experience those rulers achieved great success who deceived and neglected these promises for their own benefit. That is why the Italian philosopher draws the image of an ideal ruler as a symbiosis of two predatory animals: a lion and a fox. The fox has cunning, and the lion has strength, "the lion is afraid of traps, and the fox is afraid of wolves, therefore, one must be like a fox to get around traps, and a lion to scare away wolves." Thanks to cunning, many territories were conquered, treaties terminated, soldiers killed, but wise rulers were able to cover up their immoral cunning in time with extreme courage or quick wits. According to Machiavelli, it is not necessary for the sovereign to possess all the virtues and follow them steadily, one has only to pretend and assure the people of the purity of his personal qualities, but in fact use all possible means to achieve results by which the greatness of the ruler will be assessed.
sovereign machiavelli throne power
Conclusion
Summing up, we can say that N. Machiavelli most accurately described all the subtleties of managing and conquering the state, provided for all possible developments events and gave impetus to the development of political science in a completely different direction than before the appearance of his great works. The criterion of morality ceased to play a dominant role in the selection and evaluation of the ruler, largely due to the fact that Machiavelli put the effectiveness and rational wisdom of the sovereign in the first place. He really considered politics to be an art that does not depend on morality and religion, and he can in no way be accused of justifying violence and immoral acts of sovereigns, because he saw the goal of any sovereign in the "common good", which meant satisfying the interests of the whole people, while the use of cruel methods was only a means to a good end.
List of used literature
1. Machiavelli N. Sovereign. M. 1990.
2. Popular science online encyclopedia "Krugosvet"
3. Philosophy. Textbook for universities / Ed. V.V.Mironova. 6th edition. Moscow: Prospekt, Moskovsky State University, 2014
Niccolo Machiavelli(1469 - 1527) - Italian politician, historian and writer.
Machiavelli saw his vocation in political activity, he always strove with all his heart to take an active part in events.
The modest possibilities of the family of the future writer did not allow Niccolo Machiavelli to enter the institute. But his ability to self-educate was truly amazing. While still a young man, Machiavelli was introduced to the basics of legal and commercial sciences, which was very useful to him in his future political life.
In 1498, Machiavelli successfully passed the competition and was appointed by decree of the Great Council to the post of Chancellor of the Second Chancellery, which was far from a minor position.
For 14 years and 5 months of service, Machiavelli wrote more than four thousand official letters and reports, a large number of draft laws, government orders, military orders, made many domestic and 23 foreign trips. He was given complex diplomatic assignments at the courts of the French king, the German emperor, Italian princes, the pope ...
Staying in different countries, Machiavelli studied in detail various forms socio-political organizations, revealed their essential features, objectively compared their capabilities. Based on the study of rich factual material, he set and tried to solve important theoretical problems in the field of politics, state, government, military affairs.
Political activity Machiavelli was interrupted by the dramatic events of the autumn of 1502 - the death of the republic. Machiavelli was deprived of his post and the right to hold any public office and was expelled. But these events did not break Machiavelli: he finds the strength to take up literature and scientific research. He wanted to be useful to his country with books.
One of his most important works "Sovereign" Machiavelli created in 1513. It was published only in 1532, after the death of the author.
The works of Machiavelli must be considered as a natural expression of his era. The conditions in which he lived were determined by contradictions in three areas: within the Florentine Republic (the need for the development of a city-state), within Italy (the internecine struggle between the Italian states and the papacy), within Europe (commercial competition, the participation of the Italian republics in big European politics). ).
What was the state of Italy at that time? It has ceased to be a state. All its parts won sovereignty, many turned into seigneuries. With this system, the external forms of the republican system were preserved, but in fact the city-states were ruled by representatives of one noble family, which transferred power according to a purely dynastic principle. Italy became a disorderly mixture of independent states, within which monarchical, aristocratic or democratic rule was established by chance.
Italy became the scene of wars that foreign powers began to wage over her lands. The Germans, the French, the Swiss constantly attacked and plundered Italy.
In these terrible years, the work “The Sovereign” by Niccolo Machiavelli appeared, the reading of which must be approached from the point of view of those historical events.
In his work, which caused a lot of controversy, Machiavelli does not follow the lead of those who offered a touching ideal of a sovereign with only excellent positive qualities. He paints a picture of the realistic qualities that real rulers had and still have. And advice - what should be the new sovereign in real life- he gives reasoned, referring to the actual events of world history.
The new Sovereign Niccolo Machiavelli is not just a person with a set of qualities and properties, not just an ideal image. Machiavelli thoroughly, carefully, carefully and thoughtfully builds a visible, lively and attractive image of the New Sovereign.
Machiavelli examines in detail such categories and concepts as generosity and frugality, cruelty and mercy, love and hatred.
Considering generosity and frugality, Machiavelli notices that those sovereigns who strove to be generous, for a short time spent all their wealth. After the exhaustion of the treasury, they were forced to raise existing and establish new taxes, which led to the hatred of their subjects. Therefore, Machiavelli advises the sovereign not to be afraid to be known as avaricious. But here the author considers some possible situations when such advice will not be useful, but harmful. And, as throughout the work, he gives specific historical facts illustrating his claims.
Talking about such qualities as cruelty and mercy, Machiavelli immediately writes that "every sovereign would like to be known as merciful, not cruel." Another thing is that often, in order to retain power, the ruler has to be cruel. If the country is threatened with disorder, then the sovereign is simply obliged to prevent this, even if it is necessary to inflict several massacres. But in relation to numerous subjects, these executions will become an act of mercy, since disorder would bring grief and suffering to them.
It is because of this part of Machiavelli's work that they were accused of calling for cruelty and illegibility in the choice of means. The Sovereign is a treatise on the role, place and significance of the head of state, and he was declared a manual for absolute monarchs and dictators. But Machiavelli was not a propagandist of cruelty and hypocrisy, but a researcher of the methods and essence of autocracy.
In addition, the accusers “did not notice” in the same chapter the following words of the author: “However, the new sovereign should not be gullible, suspicious and quick to punish, in all his actions he should be restrained, prudent and merciful.” Machiavelli justified the use of cruel measures only under unavoidable circumstances.
At the same time, as a true ideologist of the bourgeoisie, Machiavelli declares the inviolability of private property, homes and families of citizens. Everything else depends on the sovereign himself, to whom Machiavelli advises to rely only on what depends on himself.
He advises Emperor Machiavelli not to be a romantic in politics. You have to be realistic. This also applies to whether the ruler needs to keep his word. It is necessary, but only if it does not run counter to the interests of his state. The sovereign must act as circumstances dictate to him. “So, of all the animals, let the sovereign become like two: a lion and a fox.” That is, let him be strong, like the king of beasts, and at the same time cunning and resourceful, like a fox. Machiavelli calls on the sovereign to be vigilant.
The predominance of general state interests over private, general political goals over any other determines the nature of the psychology of the new sovereign.
Machiavelli pays much attention to the relationship of the new sovereign with the people.
First of all, he warns that the ruler should not commit acts that could cause hatred or contempt of his subjects. The sovereign can cause contempt for himself by inconstancy, frivolity, effeminacy, cowardice.
It is in this chapter that Machiavelli clearly articulates the inviolability of private property. In no case should the sovereign violate these sacred rights, as this will lead to hatred of the ruler from the people faster than anything else.
The ruler, according to the author of The Sovereign, can face only two dangers: from the outside and from the inside. Against danger from without, one can defend oneself with weapons and valor. And against conspiracies from within, there is one most important means - "not to be hated by the people."
Machiavelli clearly divides the subjects of the sovereign into the nobility and the people. He considers achieving a balance between these groups one of the most important tasks of a wise ruler. Moreover, it is not unreasonable that he believes that the people are a much greater force than noble subjects.
Machiavelli taught not only to establish power, but also gave great importance how to maintain this power. The author gives advice not abstract, but confirmed by real historical events. On the issue of maintaining power after its conquest, Machiavelli considers a large number suitable ways: choosing friends and advisers, building or, conversely, destroying fortresses, maintaining an army, etc.
Honoring and respecting the sovereign by his subjects is one of the main conditions for maintaining his power in the country. “Nothing can inspire such reverence for the sovereign as military enterprises and extraordinary deeds,” says Machiavelli. In essence, he sets out a kind of code of conduct and actions of the new sovereign, which should be aimed at increasing his authority at home and abroad, at glorifying his name, virtues and valor.
“The sovereign is also respected if he openly declares himself an enemy or a friend,” that is, he does not hesitate if it is necessary to speak out for or against. Machiavelli draws a multifaceted image of the new sovereign.
The author does not bypass such important question, as advisers to the ruler - his inner circle. Whether they are good or bad, "depends on the prudence of sovereigns." It is precisely what kind of people the ruler brings closer to his person that speaks of his wisdom. Machiavelli believes that the first mistake or, conversely, the first success of the ruler, is the choice of advisers.
Having chosen good advisers, the sovereign should try to keep their loyalty with the help of wealth and honors.
In one of the chapters of his work, Machiavelli tries to warn the sovereign against flatterers. Protecting yourself from them, not falling under their influence, without losing respect, is not as easy as it seems.
Machiavelli also refutes the widespread opinion that the wisdom of a sovereign largely depends on good advice. This is not so, on the contrary, "it is useless for a sovereign who himself does not have wisdom to give good advice."
Giving the new sovereign unlimited power, Machiavelli, in strict accordance with this, places on him all responsibility for the state of the state, for maintaining and strengthening power. The author advises the ruler to rely less on fate, and pay more attention to ruling, wise and skillful. The sovereign must rely primarily on his ability to govern the state and on the created army, and not on fate.
Although Machiavelli admits that fate is "guilty" of half of the events, he leaves the other half in the hands of man.
More than once or twice, in various chapters on various subjects, Machiavelli returns to the issue of the sovereign's army. Any army can be attributed, in his opinion, to one of four groups: own, hired, allied and mixed. And constantly, considering various historical situations, the author comes to the conclusion that hired and allied troops are dangerous for the ruler. Machiavelli believes that his own strong army is simply necessary for any ruler who does not want to lose power. The author considers his own army "as the true basis of any military enterprise, because you cannot have better soldiers than your own."
One of the most important achievements of Machiavelli is the isolation of politics into an independent science. Politics, according to Machiavelli's beliefs, is a symbol of a person's faith, and therefore it should occupy a dominant position in the worldview.
Based on the requirements of his time, Machiavelli formulates an important historical task - the creation of a single unitary Italian state. In the course of thought, Machiavelli comes to the conclusion that only the sovereign can lead the people to the construction of a new state. Not a concrete historical personality, but something abstract, symbolic, possessing qualities that in their totality are inaccessible to any living ruler. That is why Machiavelli devotes most of his research to the question: what should be the sovereign in order to fulfill the historical task of building a new state.
The study is built strictly logically, objectively. Machiavelli proceeds from real life experience and tries to build his theoretical constructions on the foundation of this experience. "The Sovereign" is a living picture of that time.
All mentioned persons of the work are real. The author's contemporaries or historical figures are displayed in The Sovereign in order to prove or disprove something. There is nothing accidental in Machiavelli's choice of names, events, places of battles, everything performs a certain function.
The style of the "sovereign" is unusual for scientific works of that time. This is not the style of treatises, but the style of a man of action, a man who wants to cause action.
The works of Machiavelli are the expression of a personality who wants to intervene in the politics and history of his country. Machiavelli is a person who comprehends and reveals the main trends of his era, its main requirements and aspirations, who decided to radically change further development of their country.
Very indicative in this respect is Chapter IX on the civil principality. In it, Machiavelli reveals the relationship of the sovereign, the nobility and the people among themselves, their interests and goals. Power is acquired through the disposition of the people or the nobility. The nobles want to oppress the people, but the people do not want to be oppressed. As a result, either the nobles nominate a ruler from their ranks, or the people give this title to their chosen one. Machiavelli considers the power received from the people to be much more durable, since the sovereign can protect himself from the nobility, but not from the hostile people.
Machiavelli convincingly advises the sovereign never to incur the wrath and hatred of the people. On the contrary, a wise sovereign will always find a way to win over the people to his side. Thus, the alignment of class forces, the structure political power form the strategy and tactics of all participants in the political life of the state.
Machiavelli's political attitudes rest on fundamental social foundations. The political life of the Italian city-states gave Machiavelli great opportunities for sociological observations.
In the 16th - 17th centuries, his works were sought for help in political and diplomatic art, in the 18th century - for explanations of the methods and techniques of public administration. For the historical school of the 19th century, Machiavelli was an authoritative chronicler and historian; in the 20th century, he is “advised” as a classic of political sociology.
REFERENCES
1. Machiavelli Niccolo. Sovereign. - In the book: Machiavelli Niccolo. Selected works. M., 1982.
2. Dolgov K. Humanism, Renaissance and political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli. - In the book: Machiavelli Niccolo. Selected works. M., 1982.
3. Yusim M.A. Ethics of Machiavelli. - M., 1990.
4. Temnov E.I. Machiavelli. - M., 1990.
5. History of political doctrines. Ed. K.A. Mokicheva. - M., 1971.
6. Rutenburg V.I. Titans of the Renaissance. - M., 1991.
For almost five centuries, discussions around the literary and political heritage of the great Florentine, Nicollo Machiavelli, have not ceased. Machiavelli's reflections are most fully expressed in two treatises, The Sovereign and Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livius. These two works should not be contrasted, in which the author explores the forms and methods of the political organization of society, “The Sovereign” and “Discourses” complement each other well, although it is no coincidence that it is “The Sovereign” that attracts close attention of fans of Machiavelli’s work.
In a small work, Machiavelli draws an ideal image of a ruler, without whom, according to the author, contemporary Italy is suffocating. An ideal image, but by no means the image of an ideal ruler. As follows from the "Reasoning", Machiavelli is an adherent of "democracy", that is, a republican form of government. However, Machiavelli recognizes that democracy requires certain prerequisites, and in times of crisis, society needs a single ruler. The “will of one” must give “the state its order”, and the “single mind” must dispose of all its institutions.
Creating the image of his sovereign, Machiavelli sets two tasks for him - to free Italy from foreign domination, and then to unite it. The immediate task of the sovereign is the liberation of Italy, while the unification of the country is rather a dream, the embodiment of which Machiavelli is afraid, does not dare to hope.
However, being, according to the definition of Vl. Topor-Rabchinsky, a “dreamer of realism,” Machiavelli offers quite specific ways to make his dream come true.
To fulfill the super-task (which undoubtedly was the unification of Italy in the 16th century), an extraordinary person is needed. Not having found a worthy candidate in contemporary reality (none of the Medici, whom Machiavelli actually counted on, by and large did not fit this role; Caesar Borgia was already dead by the time the Emperor was written, but he did not answer everyone Machiavelli's requirements.) Machiavelli creates an ideal image. It is impossible to limit the role of the sovereign only practical advice or else reduce it to abstract theorizing about what an ideal ruler should be. Sovereign Machiavelli is a cultural hero, designed to transform Italy, he is a titan, standing on an equal footing with such great personalities of the past as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. In Machiavelli, the sovereign gradually turns into a mythological hero.
At the same time, the sovereign should be considered as a specific artistic image, as a special type of literary character who is “ actor”not a fiction novel, but a socio-political treatise. The views that Machiavelli ascribes to his hero are by no means always identical to those of Machiavelli himself. And even more so, he was not guided in life by those principles that form the basis of the worldview and mode of action of the sovereign.
Machiavelli does not consider it necessary to draw a line between the public and the personal in the image of the sovereign, which emphasizes the value of his character, the naturalness of his actions. It is not enough for a ruler to simply follow the recommendations of Machiavelli in order to be in the role of a “sovereign”. It is impossible to become Machiavelli's sovereign, one can only be him - in this main reason the impossibility of putting the "guide to action" that Machiavelli gives in his treatise into practice.
Creating his sovereign, Machiavelli draws an internally consistent character, which, however, cannot be idealized in any way. The sovereign is, first of all, a hero, called upon to solve a number of problems around which Machiavelli creates his image.
It should be borne in mind that although Machiavelli creates the ideal image of the sovereign (the image as an ideal type), his appearance is quite specific and endowed with quite definite character traits, way of thinking, worldview. The sovereign reflects his era as well as everyone literary hero in one way or another is a reflection of its time. Jota the sovereign is the answer to the challenge of time, the answer offered by Machiavelli. His sovereign is called upon to overcome, overcome the tendencies of the time, in particular, to liberate and unite Italy, crushing the forces of fragmentation and enslavement that prevailed at that time.
Accordingly, the qualities that Machiavelli endows his hero with are “superhuman” in the sense that they are not inherent in any of the real people of that time. The sovereign must, as befits a cultural hero, turn the course of the river of time, subjugate it to himself. Machiavelli endows the sovereign with qualities that are aimed at maintaining and strengthening power.
First of all, the sovereign is young - "fate always favors the young, because they are not so prudent, more courageous and more boldly command it." He dared, “because fate is a woman, and if you want to own her, you have to beat and push her.”
So, firstly, Machiavelli is a military leader, brave, resolute, warlike. War is “the only craft befitting a ruler,” so the sovereign personally leads campaigns. The army is the main pillar of the power of the sovereign Machiavelli, so he must deal with all military issues on his own. It is important to note that an aggressive foreign policy and the conduct of wars, according to Machiavelli, are in the interests of the sovereign, who himself "uses his conquests" and not in the interests of his subjects.
By a good ruler, Machiavelli understands ‘A man ... warlike’, which is quite natural, since the liberation, and later the unification of Italy, is possible only by military means. Sovereign Machiavelli acts on the basis of expediency, relying primarily on military force. He jealously guards his power, not trusting anyone to the end.
The sovereign is resolute, if necessary, cruel. This cruelty is basically justified by the interests and welfare of the state. He is by no means satisfied with half-measures - he never threatens in vain; those around you should “either caress ... or get rid of them at once.” The sovereign commits his cruelties quickly and decisively, without hesitation and unnecessary sentiment; subsequent good deeds will always be able to return the support of the people.
At the same time, the sovereign takes care not to incur universal hatred, instilling fear and love in his subjects at the same time, and it is fear that plays the leading role. The sovereign inspires fear in the people "in such a way that if you do not earn love, then avoid hatred, because it is quite possible to frighten and at the same time not become hated."
Secondly, the sovereign is a sensible and realistic politician. It should be noted that for Machiavelli, of the two main qualities of a sovereign - a bold and resolute military leader on the one hand, and a sensible politician on the other - the first is the most important.
The sovereign does not despise or insult his subjects, since “contempt and insult only excite hatred, without bringing any benefit” to the ruler, he avoids excessive wastefulness and does not indulge in excesses so as not to burden the people with taxes.
Sanity, or the wisdom of a sovereign, is necessary for the successful conduct of public affairs. The sovereign “is not wise in itself, cannot have good advisers”, he seeks advice “only when he wants it, and not others.” In a word, " good advice whoever gives them, come from the prudence of the prince, and not the prudence of the prince - from good advice.
Arguing about the qualities of his hero, Machiavelli deduces morality from the realm of politics. The end justifies the means - this is the creed of the sovereign Machiavelli (but by no means the author himself). The sovereign must first of all take care of "the victory and the preservation of the state", while "the means will always be considered worthy." For him, “it cannot be shameful not to keep promises prescribed by force”, moreover, Machiavelli directly says that “it was the princes who did great things, who did not take much into account with promises, cunning knew how to turn people's heads and in the end defeated those who relied on honesty."
The sovereign cares about the general welfare of the state, and Machiavelli does not oppose the benefit of the sovereign and the interests of the state - as already mentioned, public and personal are closely intertwined in the image of the sovereign. Machiavelli writes that "the greatness of states is based not on private benefit, but on the general welfare"; his sovereign is the spokesman for public welfare, which is opposed to the selfish interests of individual citizens.
His hero, the sovereign, Machiavelli thinks in motion. He does not yet have his principality, he has yet to create it. It is to create, and not to conquer, since none of the states existing on the Apennine Peninsula suits him. The meaning of the existence of the sovereign Machiavelli is in the creation of this state, a united Italy. To some extent, the prototype of the sovereign can be considered Caesar Borgia, who carved out a principality for himself, but Borgia is nothing more than a prototype, a pale reflection of the ideal sovereign. Success accompanied Borgia while external circumstances favored him, unlike the Machiavellian sovereign, he was a sovereign, he was not a strong enough personality to withstand the blows of fate when she ceased to be favorable to him.
Sovereign Machiavelli does not trail sadly after Fortune. He is a winner that nothing can stop. Its entire existence is subordinated to a single mission - the liberation and unification of Italy. Unlike the Medici or Caesar Borgia, the sovereign will not be able to be satisfied with little, be satisfied with a partial victory, end his days in a peaceful old age, having annexed only a couple of neighboring states. The united Italy becomes that mythological state, which is created and in which the hero of Machiavelli's treatise, the sovereign, operates. Having united Italy, the sovereign will open new page history, history of Italy.
The sovereign is far from claiming world domination. He does not strive, like Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar, to conquer the ecumene. Sovereign Machiavelli is the Prometheus of modern times, whose fire is Italy. Italy united and free. Myth and dream of Machiavelli.
Unfortunately, the 16th century unable to offer a worthy candidate. All subsequent centuries were also powerless. Although the 19th century marked the realization of Machiavelli's dream, the world did not see the sovereign. And was the great Florentine dreaming of such an Italy? And could it be otherwise? The genius of Machiavelli created an artistic image of indescribable power, a real mythological hero who is cramped in our real world.
Minyar-Beloruchev K. Moscow
The center of Machiavelli's social theories was the state, in which the progressive forces of society are presented as the main weapon against the universal papal church hegemony, as a means for realizing their political and economic interests. laying the foundation modern science about the state, Machiavelli significantly updated its conceptual apparatus. He first began to use the concept of the state (stato) to refer to a politically organized society. This was not the case with the thinkers of antiquity, nor with the humanists of the Renaissance - contemporaries of Machiavelli.
Machiavelli is credited with highlighting an independent category of benefits and interests of power, independent of the benefits and interests of society. It simultaneously provided a tool for a truly scientific analysis of the goals, tasks and functions of the state in one form or another, and a tool for criticizing the regime of power, which focuses solely on its own interests and ignores any goals that lie outside the strengthening of power itself. A strong centralized state can overcome the internal divisions of society, as well as the defense of the demand for national sovereignty in the fight against Catholic universalism in an era when the European nation is awakening.
Therefore, the ideal of state absolutism found its greatest resonance in the social theory of the Renaissance. “Of the modern, well-organized states, I cannot fail to point to France. In this country, there are countless excellent institutions, due to the need and safety of the king. The main ones are the parliament and its power. The introduction of a parliament shows that the organizers of France understood how necessary it was to curb the ambition and insatiable pride of the nobles of the state and protect the nobility from the hatred of the people. However, the organizer of this monarchy ... did not make it a duty for the king, so that the nobility could not accuse him of indulging the people, and the people of patronizing the nobility, and created an arbitration institution that, without interfering with the king, curbs the strong and encourages the weak. For the strength of the state and the tranquility of the Sovereign, it is difficult to think of a better and more reasonable institution.”
In The Sovereign, Machiavelli draws a model of an absolute monarch who, with the help of all means - cruelty and deceit, demagogy and justice, cunning and straightforwardness - ensures the preservation, strengthening and expansion of his power. According to the logic of Machiavelli, and indeed of the entire Renaissance, virtue is character, will, and vice is inconsistency, timidity, hesitation. To be a man, to be a man means to cast aside the deceptive form and “step firmly towards the goal”, while maintaining clarity of mind and firmness of will. Such a person can be a tyrant or a citizen, can be good or evil, Machiavelli is interested in one thing: can this person be called a person. The one who embarked on the path of “fate” must be a ruler of a new type, an absolute ruler, a despot, must not be bound by any a priori schemes, rules, regulations, religion or his own word, but be guided by a strict analysis real facts. The ruler as a public figure must be guided by the morality of the power of this world, not by the morality of religion, only in this way will it master the spontaneous movement of human behavior, arising from the thirst for wealth, prosperity and the instincts that accompany the life of the individual. A person must become face to face with reality, relying on his own strength in shaping his destiny.
One of the most interesting aspects of Machiavelli's thinking is that, even recommending his sovereign to act unseemly from the point of view of worldly morality, Machiavelli never stoops to call black white, to look for any "hidden virtues" in these vices, except their immediate need for successful government. “How commendable it is when the sovereign is invariably pious, lives wholeheartedly and ingenuously, is clear to everyone; nevertheless, it is clear from the experience of our times that those sovereigns who cared little for piety and knew how to confuse people's brains by cunning, defeated in the end those who relied on their honesty. These methods are very cruel, each person should avoid them and prefer to remain a private person rather than a king at the cost of such damage to people; nevertheless, those who do not want to choose the indicated good path and want to maintain power, must resort to evil. “If this is the nature of man, it is pointless to complain about it or exhort people.
The goal of the sovereign is not to protect the homeland, but to preserve princely power, but the prince can take care of himself only by taking care of the state. The interests of society are at the same time its interests. He cannot provide freedom, but he can give good laws that would protect the honor, life, property of citizens (“for people will rather forgive the death of a father than the loss of property”). He must enlist the goodwill of the people, keeping in check both masters and troublemakers. Rule your subjects, but do not beat them to death, try to study and understand them, "not being deceived by them, but deceiving them yourself." Because people pay a lot of attention to outside, the sovereign is obliged to take care of her and even against his own will must pretend that he is pious, kind and merciful, that he is the patron of arts and talents. Let him not be afraid that he will be exposed: people are by nature simple-hearted and trusting. The strongest feeling that they are capable of is fear, so the sovereign must try to be not only loved, but feared. The main thing he has to fear is hatred and contempt. Hatred is a senseless evil inspired by voluptuousness, passion, fanaticism. Contempt is the result of a weakness of the will that prevents you from going where your mind leads.
Machiavelli condemns princes who, by deceit or force, take away the freedom of the people. But as soon as they get their way, he shows them how they should maintain their power. The goal may be worthy of praise or condemnation, and if it is worthy of condemnation, then he will be the first to raise his voice of protest in the name of the human race. But, as soon as the goal is set, there are no limits to Machiavelli's admiration for the man who wished and dared to achieve it.
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