Introduction.
Entrepreneurship exists wherever people, of their own free will (and not according to a centrally developed plan), produce goods and provide services. But people make mistakes. Success in entrepreneurship does not fall from the sky. You need to be able to protect your business from mistakes. Most often, the origins of failures are laid at the stage of organizing a business. Such errors are the most difficult to correct. For this reason, knowledge of the theoretical foundations of entrepreneurship is a necessary condition for a long and successful life in business. The emergence of a market economy in Russia is leading to an increase in the number of citizens engaged in entrepreneurship. They prepare for entrepreneurial activity at universities, academies, institutes, and colleges. Entrepreneurial activity is an independent activity carried out at one’s own risk, aimed at making a profit. Depending on the sources of income, entrepreneurs-organizers, entrepreneurs-owners and entrepreneurs-innovators are distinguished. The role of the latter in the modern economic system, in conditions of intense market competition, is extremely important. However, innovative activity is associated with certain risks. Consideration of the phenomenon of innovative entrepreneurship, its features, role in the economic system and prospects is the goal of the course work.
INNOVATIVE ENTREPRENEURSHIP, ITS ESSENCE AND FEATURES
The modern market system, with its fierce competition, the need to constantly make non-standard, unexpected for a competitor and effective for oneself decisions, requires the ability not only to take risks, but also to calculate them, to reduce them to a minimum, sometimes using completely non-standard measures - this is an immutable side of the essence of entrepreneurship, which is not in the usual, traditional, standard activities of managing people and production. But entrepreneurs must fully possess all this, which allows us to assert: entrepreneurship is a relatively independent, highest level of management activity. Entrepreneurs constitute a special social group in modern society. Thus, we are dealing with a new stage in social division labor.
The development of market relations, the privatization of state and municipal property, the destruction of the command-planned economy, the reduction in production volumes and the increase in the number of insolvent enterprises and organizations influenced the innovative sphere of the economy as the basis for economic growth, increasing the competitiveness of organizations and the economy as a whole. Today, all effective enterprises, all real entrepreneurs and managers are engaged in innovative activities. Industrial enterprises create their own research and development units, sites or pilot production workshops. New building materials are being developed in construction. Especially for finishing work. In transport, especially in automobiles, the renewal period for rolling stock has already reached 5-10 years, the organization of track facilities and navigation systems are progressing. In light industry, the annual renewal of the product range reaches 40-50%. Even in the most traditional sectors of the economy, for example, in crop production and livestock farming, there is an active search for new production technologies. All these are examples of product, technological, and organizational innovations.
In accordance with international standards, innovation is defined as the final result of innovative activity, embodied in the form of a new or improved product (technology, method of organization and management) introduced on the market.
To implement innovations, innovative business projects are developed. Financing business projects is associated with significant risk, exceeding, as a rule, the usual risk of entrepreneurship. Since the 60s, in different countries, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, a special branch of business has been gradually introduced - innovative business. The capital of innovative firms is called venture (risk) capital. The first venture funds and firms, venture departments in banks and investment companies, and financial holdings appear in Russia.
Innovation and venture capital
In a traditional economy, production technology, product range, and product quality requirements have not changed for decades. In a post-industrial society in competitive markets, the survival of any enterprise and the efficiency of its work depends entirely on the intensity of innovation. The incentive mechanism for the development of innovative activity is primarily market competition. Producers and consumers in the process of using outdated equipment and technology receive differential losses. Entrepreneurial firms that are the first to master effective innovations have the opportunity to receive innovation rent. Innovation rent is additional income received by entrepreneurs through the introduction of the latest developments (new and improved technologies, products, methods of organizing and managing production). Thus, innovation activities contribute to the survival of firms in competition. Innovation activity represents a conscious choice and practical, everyday implementation of innovations in business: product innovations. technological, factor, organizational and managerial. Innovation divisions are allocated for innovation. Specialized enterprises and funds are being established and rapidly developing. In most developed countries, a special sector of the economy has actually formed - the innovative business sector.
An innovative company is a specialized enterprise or organization established for the development, implementation and dissemination of innovations as its main activity.
Innovative business differs significantly from other industries.
Firstly, the source of innovation is the creative activity of scientists, designers, technologists, inventors, innovators, i.e. creative specialists. Creativity is rare among people. The very process of creativity, the birth of new ideas and solutions is shrouded in an aura of mystery and enigma. Creators of ideas and innovations receive the titles of geniuses, talents, and high intellectuals. Although today there are training programs for the development of creative abilities among workers in mass professions - engineers, managers, skilled workers.
Secondly, ownership of ideas and innovations is registered as the intellectual property of the author or group of developers and is recorded on the balance sheet of enterprises as intangible assets. Innovative enterprises are often characterized by an excess of the share of intangible assets over tangible assets.
Thirdly, an innovative business has a higher degree of entrepreneurial risk due to the uncertainty of demand for future goods, due to the lack of practical testing of many innovations. The great risk of investing in innovation is reflected in the very name of the capital of innovative firms as venture capital.
The essence or purpose of venture capital is to pool investment funds to finance innovative projects or enterprises in the first stages of their implementation (3-5 years), or to expand and modernize enterprises and their divisions on a new technical basis.
According to the experience of the United States, where venture capital has received the greatest development, it is used in three main forms.
Private venture firms with average capital from 300 thousand to 4 million dollars. At the end of the 80s, more than 200 such firms financed profitable projects, achieving a 5-10-fold increase in the initial investment in 5-10 years.
Small investment companies (SICs) are based on the principles of financial partnerships. The sources of investment in such pools (agreements) are the personal funds of wealthy partners, investments of corporations, pension and charitable funds. The partnership is managed, as a rule, by the main partner or a professional financier, who receives a remuneration plus a percentage of innovative income. The activities of MICs are almost no different from the activities of private investment companies.
Corporate (industrial) venture companies. They finance large investment projects worth 10-15 million dollars. There are more than 100 registered venture capital corporations in the United States.
In Russia, venture capital often arises in the form of foreign investment funds, targeted innovation funds, scientific institutions and higher education.
Innovation potential is the ability to innovate, which depends both on the existing scientific and technical potential, and on the investment policy of the enterprise and the investment climate in the country.
For the effective functioning of enterprises in a market economy, the desire and willingness of enterprises and the state to invest in innovation and pursue policies to support risky, but also significantly promising innovations is necessary.
Therefore it is possible to determine next effect from innovations in enterprise management, including anti-crisis management.
First, innovation is the basis for crisis management and financial recovery. Anti-crisis management places special anti-crisis process and product innovations at the center of methods for financial recovery of bankrupt enterprises. This is evidenced by the Russian practice of crisis management. For example, the Russian Federal Service for Financial Recovery and Insolvency (Bankruptcy) carries out anti-crisis management in this way. The financial recovery of the enterprise, preserving it as an operating one and preserving jobs and sources of tax revenue, suggests only three possible options in the event of bankruptcy of the enterprise:
establishing external management during the term - while there is a moratorium on the collection of overdue accounts payable of the enterprise;
establishing, over the same period, the same regular cash flows from the production and sales of profitable products, which, although they do not allow
repay all overdue debts, but allow you to achieve stable performance;
establishing cash flows for products that have become profitable (old or new).
All these measures are aimed at establishing cash flows from the production of profitable products. Consequently, the main task of crisis management is to make the enterprise's products profitable. To do this, it is necessary to either reduce costs or increase sales volumes.
Process anti-crisis innovations to reduce costs are resource-saving and resource-substituting technologies. However, these technologies should not require large capital investments and should quickly pay for themselves. In fact, such innovations turn out to be innovations at the level of rationalization proposals, which involve minor modifications to the design and technological process
Product anti-crisis innovations usually involve expanding the production of profitable types of products that are in demand and for which production capacity is available; or the development of new profitable products that can be developed with the existing scientific and technical resources, relying on existing production capacities with a possible complete change in the sales system and switching to other distribution chains. Any other anti-crisis measures can only serve to ensure central product and process innovations. Concept innovative activities and types Innovative activity - activity, ..., as well as in procedures, methods and standards production and quality control; 6)pre-production developments, including...
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Innovation at the enterprise- a form of manifestation of scientific and technological progress at the micro level. They contribute to updating the range of products, improving their quality in order to meet consumer needs and maximize the organization’s profits.
Efficiency of innovative(scientific and technical) development enterprises are determined based on the ratio effect(profit of the organization) and the costs that caused it. There are four main types of effect from innovation: technical, resource, economic and social.
The success of innovation implementation at an enterprise is influenced by many factors, among which we note scientific and technical potential; production and technical base; main types of resources; large investments; appropriate control system. The correct correlation and use of these factors, as well as the close relationship through the management system between the innovation, production and marketing activities of the company lead to a positive result in the implementation of the innovation strategy.
Innovative development of an enterprise is the basis for increasing the efficiency of its activities
— the final result of introducing an innovation in order to change the management object and obtain economic, environmental, scientific, technical or other type of effect.
Scientific and technical progress- is a process of continuous development of science, technology, technology, improvement of objects of labor, forms and methods of organizing production and labor. It is the most important means of solving socio-economic problems, such as improving working conditions, protecting the environment, and ultimately increasing the well-being of the nation. Scientific and technical progress is of great importance for ensuring the system national security and defense.
In its development, NTP manifests itself in two interrelated and interdependent forms (Table 1).
Table 1 Forms of scientific and technological progress
|
NTP form |
Term and essence |
Characteristic |
|
Evolutionary |
Can last quite a long time and provide significant economic results (especially in the initial stages) |
Gradual and continuous improvement of traditional technical means and technologies; accumulation of base for radical transformations |
|
Revolutionary |
Qualitative changes are taking place in logistics production base in relatively short time. Promotes the rapid development of industries that determine the technical re-equipment of the national economy |
Based on the achievements of science and technology. Characterized by the use of new energy sources, widespread use of electronics, new technological processes, advanced materials |
The relationship between these two forms is manifested in the following: scientific and technological progress, being the basis for fundamental changes in the field of science and technology, constantly improves revolutionary inventions, i.e. contributes to the scientific and technological revolution. For example, the invented internal combustion engine gave a powerful impetus to the development of the automotive industry. Recent improvements in automotive technology are bringing manufacturers ever closer to a new breakthrough, the abandonment of gasoline and diesel engines. The scientific and technological revolution, in turn, accelerates scientific and technological progress, bringing it to a qualitatively new level. A striking example is the development of agriculture after the invention and introduction of electricity (incubators for poultry, milking machines, automatic feeding systems for animals and birds, etc.).
Efficiency innovative (scientific and technical) development of an organization is determined based on the ratio of the effect and the costs that caused it (Fig. 1). Efficiency is a relative value, measured in fractions of a unit or as a percentage, and characterizing the result of the costs incurred. The efficiency criterion is maximizing the effect (profit) at given costs or minimizing costs (production costs) to achieve a given effect.
Thus, the innovative development of an organization is closely related to its investment activities. Significant investments are required both in order to achieve results research works (laboratory technologies) to industrial readiness (industrial or pilot-industrial technologies), and for the purchase of ready-made industrial technology (which is much less capital-intensive).
Rice. 1. Efficiency of innovative development (ID) of the organization
The volume of investment depends on the features of the innovation process, such as many options for achieving the goal, a high level of risk when introducing innovation, a low level of predictive assessments of the result, the need to process large amounts of information to build the company's innovation strategy, etc.
In recent years, systemic reform of Russian enterprises has been of great importance. It is necessary to radically change production technology, which is associated with innovation strategy enterprises, organizations and firms, which is important in a market economy characterized by rapid change market conditions and active competition among enterprises. Effective development and implementation of innovations allow the enterprise to operate successfully in already developed areas and open up opportunities to enter new directions. The success of innovation implementation in an organization is influenced by:
- scientific and technical potential;
- production and technical base;
- main types of resources;
- large investments;
- appropriate control system.
The correct correlation and use of these factors, as well as the close relationship through the management system between the innovation, production and marketing activities of the company lead to a positive result in the implementation of the innovation strategy.
The formation of innovative strategies is based on the general socio-economic goals and innovative objectives of the organization. Making a profit and maximizing it is the fundamental goal of an organization in market conditions. To achieve it, the organization defines specific lower-order goals. Among the general socio-economic goals of the second level are:
- increase in production scale;
- market share growth;
- stabilization of the market situation;
- development of new markets (Table 2).
A properly formed portfolio of innovative strategies contributes to a more rational allocation of resources and, accordingly, affects the efficiency of the organization as a whole. However, the development and implementation of an innovation strategy largely depends on factors in the organization’s external environment. When strategic planning, it is necessary to take into account the innovative potential of competitors, the attitude of the state towards the innovative activities of the organization, and the general scientific, technical, economic, political and social atmosphere in the country.
Main directions of innovative development of the organization
The main directions of innovative development of an enterprise in the modern economy:
- complex mechanization and automation;
- chemicalization;
- electrification;
- electronicization of production;
- introduction of new materials;
- mastering new technologies (Fig. 2).
Table 2 Formation of an innovation strategy in an organization
|
Purpose of the organization |
Organization's mission |
The essence of the organization's innovation strategy |
|
Increase in production scale:
|
|
|
|
Market share growth |
Production of interrelated products; growth in production volumes; ousting competitors from the market |
Increasing the technical level of production, scientific and technical support for bringing to market products with characteristics superior to those of competitors. Developing innovations to sustainably reduce production costs to lower levels than competitors |
|
Stabilization of the market situation |
Following the product life cycle; timely launch of products to the market; maintaining low production costs |
Achieving a high technical level of products and technologies; ensuring that the product life cycle aligns with R&D cycles |
|
Development of new markets |
Mastering the production of new products to meet the requirements of different markets; mobile scientific and technical potential, capable of switching to solving diverse problems |
Development of differentiated products and processes; scientific and technical support for the processes of bringing goods to market |
1. Integrated mechanization and automation of production- widespread introduction of interconnected and interdependent machines, apparatus, devices, equipment in all areas of production, operations and types of work. It promotes the intensification of production, growth, reducing the share of manual labor in production, facilitating and improving working conditions, and reducing the labor intensity of products. Thus, mechanization displaces manual labor and replaces it with machines in basic and auxiliary technological operations.
In the process of development, mechanization went through several stages: from the mechanization of the main technological processes, which are characterized by the greatest labor intensity, to the mechanization of both main and auxiliary technological processes (comprehensive mechanization).
Automation of production means the use of technical means to completely or partially replace human participation in the processes of obtaining, converting, transferring and using energy, materials or information. Automation can be:
- partial (covers individual operations and processes);
- comprehensive (covers the entire cycle of work);
- complete (the automated process is implemented without direct human participation).
2. Chemicalization of production— improvement of production processes as a result of the introduction of chemical technologies, raw materials, materials, products in order to intensify, obtain new types of products and improve their quality. This reduces production costs and increases the organization's efficiency in the market. Examples are “new generation” varnishes and coatings, chemical additives, synthetic fibers, lightweight and durable plastics.
3. Electrification of production— widespread introduction of electricity as a power source for industrial power apparatus. Based on electrification, they carry out comprehensive mechanization and automation of production and introduce progressive technology. Electrophysical and electrochemical processing methods make it possible to obtain products of complex geometric shapes. Lasers are widely used for cutting and welding metals and heat treatment.
4. Electronization of production— providing all departments of the organization with highly efficient electronics - from personal computers to satellite communication and information systems. On the base computer and microprocessors create technological complexes, machines and equipment, measuring, regulating and Information Systems, conduct design work and scientific research, provide information services and training. This increases labor productivity, reduces the time to obtain information, and increases the speed of the production process.
5. Creation and implementation new materials, possessing qualitatively new effective properties (heat resistance, superconductivity, corrosion and radiation resistance, etc.), which makes it possible to increase the competitiveness of manufactured products. This, in turn, will have a positive impact on the organization’s profit performance.
6. Mastery new technologies solves many production and socio-economic problems. In the production process, fundamentally new technologies make it possible to increase the volume of output without involving additional production factors. The development of new biotechnologies will help solve the problems of hunger in developing countries, control crop pests without damaging the environment, provide raw materials to all regions of the world economy, and create waste-free production.
Domestic enterprises, in the context of a decline in production during the period of economic reforms, faced a serious problem in the field of innovative development. The main difficulties were caused by the refusal of R&D funding from the state, which led to the temporary freezing of this type of activity of the organization. However, today many Russian enterprises have begun to adapt to market conditions, and there has been some growth in the domestic industry. The transition of enterprises to self-financing and the attraction of domestic and foreign investors prompted innovation activities of enterprises. In addition, managers of industrial enterprises realized that strategic planning in the field of innovation is a fundamental element in increasing the efficiency of a company's activities in market conditions. In this regard, part of internal investments began to be directed to the innovative development of the enterprise.
Innovation, however, requires not only significant investment, but also effective management in order to obtain a positive result from its application.
It is necessary to distinguish between: - innovations and minor modifications in products and technological processes (for example, aesthetic changes, that is, color, etc.); minor technical or external changes in products that leave the design unchanged and do not have a sufficiently noticeable impact on the parameters, properties, cost of the product, as well as the materials and components included in it;
Innovative development
Innovative development is a systemic process of social and economic development, based on knowledge and innovation, realizing the competitive advantages of the country's economy, ensuring sustainable economic growth, improving the quality and standard of living of the population through the harmonization of the interests of its participants.
To effectively manage innovative development, it is first necessary to understand the substantive side of the categorical apparatus of innovative development and, above all, the term “innovation”. 
In the world economic literature, there have been several approaches to defining the category “innovation”, which treat innovation as a process; system; change; result.
It should be noted that the development of the theory of innovation is significantly hampered by the lack of a unified position among researchers on many fundamental issues (terminology, classification of innovations, etc.). Currently exists a large number of significantly different definitions of the concept of “innovation”. However, with all the existing diversity of definitions of this term, two approaches to understanding the essence of this category are distinguished. On the one hand, innovation refers to the process of introducing new technologies, products, processes, organizational principles, etc., that is, innovation is the generation, adoption and implementation of new ideas, processes, products and services. On the other hand, innovation is an idea, practice or product that is perceived as new. In other words, they view innovation not as a process, but as the result of a creative process, embodied in the form of a new technology, product, method, etc.
The following definition most accurately and completely reflects the essence of innovation: innovation is a new or improved product (product, work, service), a method (technology) of its production or use, innovation or improvement
in the field of organization and (or) economics of production and (or) sales
products that provide economic benefits, create conditions for such benefits, or improve the consumer properties of products (goods, work, services).
In the economic literature, there are different approaches to the classification of innovations. In turn, the classification of innovations is the distribution of innovations into specific groups according to certain criteria. A classification is proposed in accordance with the above definition (Table 1).
General characteristics of innovation processes
Concept and classification. The entire set of processes (phenomena) occurring at enterprises in various sectors of the national economy can be divided into two groups - traditional and innovative. Traditional processes (phenomena) characterize the normal functioning of the national economy, its industries and enterprises, while innovative processes characterize the development of the latter at a qualitatively new level. Over a long period, when the economy functioned and developed primarily due to extensive factors (the use of an ever-increasing volume of public resources - personnel, production assets), traditional evolutionary processes dominated in production. Since extensive factors have practically exhausted themselves or have become economically unprofitable, the development and intensification of modern production should be based primarily on new solutions in the fields of technology, equipment, organizational forms and management methods. The development, adoption, and implementation of such decisions constitute the content of innovation processes. 
In a general understanding, the innovative processes that take place in any complex production and economic system are a set of progressive, qualitatively new changes that continuously arise in time and space.
The result of innovative processes is innovation, and their introduction into economic practice is usually called innovation. Innovation processes initiated by individual branches of science, and completed in the sphere of production, contributing to progressive changes in the latter. The primary impulses for the introduction of innovations (innovations) at enterprises are not only social needs and the results of fundamental scientific research, but also the use of foreign progressive experience in the fields of technology and production organization, modern forms of management. By their nature, innovation processes, innovations and innovations are divided into interrelated types (Fig. 9.1).
Main sources, classification and relationship of innovative processes (innovations, innovations) at the enterprise
Technical innovations and innovations appear in the form of new products (products), technologies for their production, means of production (machines, equipment, energy, construction materials). Organizational innovations cover new methods and forms of organizing all types of activities of enterprises and other parts of social production (organizational structures for managing the spheres of science and production, forms of organization various types production and collective labor, etc.).
Economic innovations (innovations) include methods of economic management of science and production through the implementation of the functions of forecasting and planning, financing, pricing, motivation and remuneration, performance evaluation, and social innovations include various forms of enhancing the human factor (professional training and advanced training of personnel, primarily management personnel at all levels; stimulation of creative activity; improvement of conditions and constant support of a high level of labor safety; protection of human health and the environment; creation of comfortable living conditions, etc.). Legal innovations are recognized as new and amended laws and various regulatory documents that define and regulate all types of activities of an enterprise and organization.
Based on the scale and power of influence on the efficiency of certain units of social production, all innovations and innovations can be combined into two groups - local (single) and global (large-scale). If local innovations (innovations) cause predominantly evolutionary transformations in the field of activity of enterprises and therefore do not have any significant impact on the efficiency of their functioning and development, then global innovations, which are in most cases revolutionary (fundamentally new), radically increase the organizational and technical level production, providing significant positive changes in economic and social processes.
There is a relatively close relationship between certain types of innovation processes (innovations, innovations). Technical innovations cause, first of all, corresponding organizational innovations, and the latter, as a rule, require certain changes in the economic mechanism of the enterprise. In particular, the creation and development of flexible automated systems (production) - GAS (GAP) at enterprises in various industries objectively requires fundamental changes in the organization of technical preparation of production, methods of current planning and operational regulation, making it necessary to transition to a continuous mode of operation of workshops with flexible production systems. In addition, large-scale computerization of production and other areas of human activity leads to the active formation of a new type of management - industrial service and the corresponding organizational and economic forms of its implementation.
Effective technical, organizational and economic innovations lead to noticeable positive changes in social processes in enterprises, and the constant updating of urgent social problems initiates their solution using new economic methods. Finally, all innovations at enterprises aimed at dynamic development and steady improvement of production efficiency must be based on their own legal foundation and relevant regulations. Otherwise, they will not be able to adequately influence the scale of the goals of enterprises and organizations and the timing of their achievement.
Based on this, it is necessary to positively assess the intensification of legislative processes in Ukraine, which will ultimately contribute to a rapid transition to socially oriented market relations between business entities.
Impact on production.
Local and global innovations of different directions can provide the greatest possible impact on production if the enterprise uses them constantly, comprehensively and harmoniously. Technical and organizational innovations have the greatest direct impact on the effectiveness (efficiency) of an enterprise. Other innovations affect production indirectly through the effectiveness of new organizational and technical solutions. The power of influence of individual organizational, technical and other innovations on the corresponding performance indicators of an enterprise is evidenced by numerous examples. 
Thus, experience in operating flexible automated production (FAP) has shown their significant advantages compared to traditional technological equipment: the share of labor costs (per part) decreased by 25-39%, and overhead costs by more than 80%. ; production areas were reduced by 60%, and the duration of the production cycle - by 5-6 times. Among the global technical innovations, the most important in terms of impact on the economy of the enterprise are rotary and rotary-conveyor lines, which also provide an increase in labor productivity - 4-10 times; reducing the volume of required production area- 2.0-2.5 times; reducing the manufacturing cycle time by 15-20 times, and the volume of product transportation by 25-30 times.
The influence of new technical (technological) systems not only on economic phenomena, but also on social processes is noticeably increasing, which requires the constant attention of designers of new equipment to ensure the necessary indicators of its reliability, efficiency and environmental friendliness. The task of greening production is especially urgent. Special scientific studies have established, for example, that doubling air pollution with harmful emissions reduces the service life of industrial equipment before the first major overhaul (between two adjacent ones) on average one and a half times. Wheat yields in the areas covered by non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises are 40-60% less than outside these zones. At the same time, it is known that modern advanced technologies in many cases make it possible not only to reduce the amount of harmful emissions, but also to transform their additional factors for the growth of production volumes and profits. In particular, the use of technology for recycling sulfur dioxide emissions from thermal power plants by equipping them with appropriate gas treatment plants can satisfy half of the Ukrainian national economy's need for sulfuric acid.
However, the effectiveness of individual global and local measures is an important, but insufficient measure of the degree of influence of organizational and technical innovations on the performance of enterprises. In this regard, it is necessary to have a specific methodology for determining the integral impact of a specific set of innovations on key indicators of the production and economic activities of an enterprise.
First of all, it is recommended to use a general methodological approach, the essence of which boils down to calculating, using special algorithms (formulas), the main indicators that characterize the economic efficiency of a particular set of new technical and organizational innovations (TON) introduced over the course of a year (several years). In particular, such technical and economic indicators should be calculated.
Kinds innovative production and their classification. It is necessary to distinguish between: - innovations and minor modifications in products and technological processes (for example, aesthetic changes, that is, color, etc.); minor technical or external changes in products that leave the design unchanged and do not have a sufficiently noticeable impact on the parameters, properties, cost of the product, as well as the materials and components included in it; - expansion of the product range by mastering the production of products that were not previously produced at this enterprise, but are already known on the market, in order to satisfy current demand and increase the income of the enterprise. The novelty of innovations is assessed based on technological parameters, as well as from market positions.
Taking this into account, a classification of innovations is constructed. Depending on technological parameters, innovations are divided into product and process. Product innovations include: - the use of new materials; - new semi-finished products and components; - obtaining fundamentally new products. Process innovation means new methods of organizing production (new technologies). Process innovations can be associated with the creation of new organizational structures within an enterprise (firm). 
Based on the type of novelty for the market, innovations are divided into: - new to the industry in the world; - new to the industry in the country; - new for a given enterprise (group of enterprises). If we consider an enterprise (firm) as a system, we can distinguish:
3. Innovations in the system structure of the enterprise: - managerial; - production; - technological. Depending on the depth of changes introduced, innovations are distinguished: - radical (basic); - improving; - modification (private). The listed types of innovations differ from each other in the degree of coverage of life cycle stages.
Russian scientists from the Research Institute for System Research (RNIISI) have developed an expanded classification of innovations, taking into account the areas of activity of the enterprise, in which innovations are highlighted: - technological; - production; - economic; - trading; - social; - in the field of management. Classification of innovations according to A.I. Prigogine:
1. By prevalence: - single - diffuse. Diffusion is the dissemination of an innovation that has already been mastered in new conditions or on new objects of implementation. It is thanks to diffusion that the transition occurs from a single introduction of innovation to innovation on an economy-wide scale.
Classification and advantage of innovations
Classification of innovations means the distribution of innovations into specific groups according to certain criteria. The construction of a classification scheme for innovation begins with the definition of classification characteristics. The classification sign is a distinctive property of a given group of innovations, its main feature.
Classification of innovations can be carried out according to different schemes, using different classification criteria. The economic literature presents a variety of approaches to the classification of innovations, as well as to the identification of its criteria.
Innovations are classified according to the following criteria:
significance (basic, improving, pseudo-innovations);
direction (replacing, rationalizing, expanding);
place of sale (industry of origin, industry of implementation, industry of consumption);
depth of change (regeneration of original methods, change in quantity, regrouping, adaptive changes; new variant, new generation, new species, new genus);
developer (developed by the enterprise, external forces);
scale of distribution (to create a new industry, application in all industries);
place in the production process (main product and technological, complementary product and technological);
the nature of the needs being satisfied (new needs, existing needs);
degree of novelty (based on a new scientific discovery, based on a new method of application to long-discovered phenomena);
time to market (leading innovations, follower innovations);
cause of occurrence (reactive, strategic); 
area of application (technical, technological, organizational and managerial, informational, social, etc.).
Based on their significance, basic innovations are distinguished, which implement major inventions and become the basis for the formation of new generations and areas of technology; improving innovations, usually implementing small and medium-sized inventions and predominant in the diffusion and sustainable development scientific and technical cycle; pseudo-innovations aimed at partially improving outdated generations of equipment and technologies.
In terms of impact on the production process, innovations can be expanding (aimed at deep penetration into various industries and markets of existing basic innovations), rationalizing (essentially close to modifications) and replacing (intended to replace old products or technologies with new ones based on the implementation of that same functions).
Classification of innovations according to the depth of changes made allows us to consistently trace the transitions from innovations of a lower level to a higher one:
regenerating the original properties of the system, preserving and updating its existing functions;
changing the quantitative properties of the system, regrouping the components of the system in order to improve its functioning;
adaptive changes in the elements of the production system in order to adapt to each other;
a new option is the simplest qualitative change that goes beyond simple adaptive changes;
new generation - all or most of the properties of the system change, but the basic concept remains the same;
new type - a qualitative change in the original properties of the system, the original concept without changing the functional principle;
new genus - the highest change in the functional properties of the system, which changes its functional principle;
radical (basic);
improving;
modification (private).
Based on the scale of distribution, local innovations that develop existing basic technologies can be distinguished; industry innovations that became the basis for a new industry; and global innovation that has applications across all industries.
Depending on the nature of the needs being satisfied, innovations can be focused on existing needs or can create new ones.
According to the degree of novelty, innovations can be based on new discoveries or be created on the basis of a new method applied to open phenomena. Also, according to the type of novelty for the market, innovations are divided into:
new to the industry in the world;
new to the industry in the country;
new for a given enterprise (group of enterprises).
Based on the reasons for their occurrence, innovation can be divided into reactive, ensuring the survival of the company, which is a reaction to innovations carried out by a competitor; and strategic - innovations, the implementation of which is proactive in nature in order to gain competitive advantages in the future.
In terms of application, innovations are very unique: technical ones usually appear in the production of products with new or improved properties; technological ones arise when using improved, more advanced methods of manufacturing products; organizational and managerial are associated, first of all, with the processes of optimal organization of production, transport, sales and supply; information solve the problems of organizing rational information flows in the field of scientific, technical and innovative activities, increasing the reliability and efficiency of obtaining information; social ones are aimed at improving working conditions, solving problems of health care, education, and culture.
Based on the place of innovation in the system (in the enterprise), we can distinguish:
innovations “at the input” of the enterprise (changes in the choice of raw materials, materials, machinery and equipment, information, etc.);
innovations at the output of the enterprise (products, services, technologies, information, etc.);
innovation of the system structure of the enterprise (managerial, production, technological).
The Research Institute for System Research (RNIISI) has proposed an expanded classification of innovations taking into account the areas of activity of the enterprise. According to this criterion, innovations are divided into:
technological;
production;
economic;
trading;
social;
in the field of management.
In the theory of innovation management, there is a general (traditional) classification of innovations and innovative products and a classification of innovations that takes into account the development of technologies based on “disruptive” innovations.
Types of innovations and their classification
Innovation management can be successful subject to long-term study of innovations, which is necessary for their selection and use. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between innovations and minor modifications in products and technological processes (for example, aesthetic changes, that is, color, etc.); minor technical or external changes in products that leave the design unchanged and do not have a sufficiently noticeable impact on the parameters, properties, cost of the product, as well as the materials and components included in it; expansion of the product range by mastering the production of products that were not previously produced at this enterprise, but are already known on the market, with the goal. Meeting current demand and increasing enterprise income.
The novelty of innovations is assessed based on technological parameters, as well as from market positions. Taking this into account, a classification of innovations is constructed.
Depending on technological parameters, innovations are divided into product and process.
Product innovations include the use of new materials, new semi-finished products and components; obtaining fundamentally new products. Process innovation means new methods of organizing production (new technologies). Process innovations can be associated with the creation of new organizational structures within an enterprise (firm).
Based on the type of novelty for the market, innovations are divided into: new to the industry in the world; new to the industry in the country; new for a given enterprise (group of enterprises). 
If we consider an enterprise (firm) as a system, we can distinguish:
1. Innovation at the entrance to the enterprise (changes in the selection and use of raw materials, materials, machinery and equipment, information, etc.);
2. Innovations coming out of the enterprise (products, services, technologies, information, etc.);
3. Innovation of the system structure of the enterprise (managerial, production, technological).
Depending on the depth of changes made, innovations are distinguished:
radical (basic);
improving;
modification (private).
The listed types of innovations differ from each other in the degree of coverage of life cycle stages.
Russian scientists from the Research Institute for System Research (RNIISI) have developed an expanded classification of innovations, taking into account the areas of activity of the enterprise, in which innovations are highlighted:
technological;
production;
economic;
trading;
social;
in the field of management.
A fairly complete classification of innovations was proposed by A. I. Prigozhin:
1. By prevalence:
single
diffuse.
Diffusion is the dissemination of an innovation that has already been mastered in new conditions or on new objects of implementation. It is thanks to diffusion that the transition occurs from a single introduction of innovation to innovation on an economy-wide scale.
2. By place in the production cycle:
raw materials
providing (binding)
grocery
3. By succession:
replacing
canceling
returnable
opening
retro-introductions
4. By coverage:
local
systemic
strategic
5. By innovative potential and degree of novelty:
radical
combinatorial
improving
The last two directions of the classification, taking into account the scale and novelty of innovation, the intensity of innovative change, most express the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of innovation and are important for economic assessment their consequences and rationale for management decisions.
The original innovative observation was made by N.D. Kondratiev in the 20s, who discovered the existence of so-called “large cycles” or, as they are called abroad, “long waves”. N. D. Kondratyev pointed out the existence of a relationship between long waves and the technical development of production, drawing on data on scientific and technical discoveries for analysis, showing the wave-like nature of their dynamics. He explored the dynamics of innovation, distinguishing it from discoveries and inventions. The dynamics of innovations are studied in the context of the phases of a large cycle. In the studies of N. D. Kondratiev, the foundations of the so-called cluster approach are first seen. N. D. Kondratiev showed that innovations are distributed unevenly over time, appearing in groups, that is, in modern terms, clusters. The recommendations of N. D. Kondratiev can be used in developing an innovation strategy.
2.2. Organizational structures of innovation management
Organizational structures of innovation management - organizations engaged in innovation activities, scientific research and development.
Scientific organization is an organization (institution, enterprise, company) for which scientific research and development is the main activity. Scientific research and development can be the main activity for units within an organization (institution, enterprise, firm). The presence of such divisions does not depend on the organization’s affiliation in a particular sector of the economy or its organizational and legal form of ownership.
In accordance with the recommendations of the Frascati Guide, Russia operates next classification scientific organizations by sectors of science and types of organizations, united by organizational characteristics, nature and specialization of work performed:
Sectors of science (activities)
In modern conditions, innovative enterprises and companies are distinguished by the special nature of their activities, the basis of which is the use, development, implementation and application of innovations in economic activity.
The traditional approach to determining the specifics of an innovative company is to point out the need for a situation in which the introduction of complex innovations is an integral part of the organization and its industry segment; therefore, a company is innovative if a significant part of its activities is related to innovation processes.
Thus, the general approach to determining the essence of an innovative company is related to the specifics of the activities it carries out.
According to this approach, an innovative company largely depends on adaptation to the external environment, flexible management, and the ability to innovate. However, this approach is largely limited to determining the key activity of an innovative company depending on the concepts of “innovation” and “innovation activity”.
Innovation can be viewed as an outcome, as a change, or as a process. In particular, the following definition can be given:
Innovation is the finished result of scientific and technical activity to create a fundamentally new or improved object, technology or process, the practical development and implementation of which will lead to a beneficial effect for society or the satisfaction of specific social needs.
On the other hand, innovation is the use of the results of scientific and technical activities aimed at improving a process.
In addition, an important aspect of the concept of innovation is the profitable nature of its use. In other words, new technologies, production, organizational, technological, economic, social solutions must bring profit as a result of their application.
Thus, innovation is a complex, voluminous category that is studied in different dimensions.
Innovation activity is the creation, development, dissemination and use of innovations. Innovation activity is a complex set of scientific, technological, organizational, managerial and financial and economic activities aimed at transforming the results of scientific, technological and applied developments into commercial results. This approach assumes an initial need for financing such activities. A more concise definition can be given, according to which innovation activity is aimed at the creation, development, dissemination and use of innovations.
At the same time, a more complete and objective definition can be proposed.
Innovation activity is an activity aimed at using, introducing, mastering and effectively implementing accumulated knowledge, technologies and equipment, results of scientific research and development to improve technologies, products, and production processes.
Thus, innovation activity can be viewed from two points of view:
1. As a means of providing a strategic advantage to companies for which innovation itself is not the main type of business;
2. As a type of activity, the product of which is specific scientific, scientific-technical and other results that can be used as the basis for innovations in other industries.
Innovative companies can meet both criteria to varying degrees, depending on the nature of their activities and the specifics of innovation.
An innovative enterprise is such if its main goal is to bring new ideas, developments, innovations to a specific consumer and achieve commercial success.
An innovative enterprise is a commercial organization that carries out the practical implementation of technologies containing confidential information of a technical, economic, administrative, financial or other nature, and receives the largest share of income from the creation and subsequent sale of innovative products or as a result of the use of innovative technical and technological processes.
Depending on the fundamental nature of the content of innovative activity, the following types of innovative enterprises can be distinguished:
1. An innovative enterprise focused on an end product, technology or process that is a finished product.
2. A technology-oriented innovative enterprise is engaged in the introduction of technologies aimed at improving production processes, technical aspects, and technological procedures within the framework of its main activities.
3. An organizational and production innovative enterprise focuses its activities on improving production and complex processes of its organization.
4. An innovative enterprise, focused on management innovation, is engaged in relevant activities without reference to specific products, processes and technologies.
Innovative companies focused on the final product are mainly focused on creating fundamentally new goods, services or works based on innovation. Technology-oriented innovative enterprises are characterized by a significant level of efficiency of their technologies. Management innovative companies are characterized by advanced methods of development and decision-making, personnel management, etc. The most complex are the organizational and production innovative enterprises, whose activities in many aspects are the result of the introduction of innovations.
An innovative enterprise can exist on the basis of one of three models:
1. Internal organization– innovation is created within the company based on the implementation of innovative projects by various departments;
2. External contract organization - innovation is created on the basis of contracts for its creation and development between third-party organizations;
3. External venture organization - additional third-party funds are attracted to implement innovative projects.
In general, an innovative company must have the ability to continuously create innovative developments and implement their developments in its activities, using for this purpose the technologies, management resources and commercial opportunities available to the enterprise. It should be noted that innovation is important for an innovative enterprise, often being a value factor for their development.
Consequently, an innovative enterprise tends to implement new ideas in various fields its activities, including both internal and external resources, but, in particular, relying on its own employees, specialists who are strategically important for the system technologies used by the company in its ongoing economic activities.
Innovative enterprises achieve the highest economic impact if the results of innovative developments provide the company with the opportunity to increase its technological level, thereby providing a long-term competitive advantage.
At the same time, the combination of technological, managerial, commercial, and organizational innovations makes it possible to create a strategic advantage for an enterprise only if the innovative company carries out innovative activities in a comprehensive manner, focusing on the development of technology as a whole. In fact, it can be rightly argued that an innovative enterprise strives for its development through innovative technologies, while the area of their direct implementation is not as important.
In accordance with this, an innovative company must have the following characteristics:
The ultimate goal of an innovative company is to produce competitive products;
innovation activity for a company is a long-term and dynamic process that corresponds to the operating conditions of the company;
an innovative company must have preliminary developments and a technical and technological system for their implementation in order to comply with changing business conditions;
independent nature and independence of direct innovation activity;
orientation towards obtaining economic benefits in the long term.
Taking into account the list of key characteristics of an innovative company, one can judge the need for a target orientation of innovation activity, since the introduction of innovation for the sake of the process itself does not seem rational.
Small innovative enterprise
A small business entity is a commercial organization, and in the authorized capital of which the share of participation of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, public and religious organizations (associations), charitable and other foundations does not exceed 25%, the share owned by one or more legal entities that are not small business entities entrepreneurship, does not exceed 25% and in which average number employees during the reporting period does not exceed the following maximum levels: in industry - 100 people; in construction - 100 people; on transport - 100 people; in agriculture - 60 people; in the scientific and technical field - 60 people; in wholesale trade - 50 people; in retail trade and consumer services - 30 people; in other industries and when carrying out other types of activities - 50 people. Small businesses also mean: individuals those engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity. (Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economics and Law).Small innovative enterprises are enterprises that develop and implement high-tech technologies and products into production.
Small innovative enterprises (SIEs) act as a link between science and production. It is small firms that often take risks when developing new products and technologies, turning knowledge into goods. Due to the risky nature of their activities, their composition is constantly changing: some firms disappear, others appear. Nevertheless, a certain balance emerges that provides a “critical mass” of SIEs in national innovation systems.
The law on the creation of small innovative enterprises at universities was adopted by the State Duma of the Russian Federation. The law allows budgetary institutions of science and education to create business societies to implement the results of their research into production. In particular, universities, research institutes and scientific institutions created by state academies of sciences received the right to form economic societies for the practical application of the results of intellectual activity, including computer programs, databases, inventions, utility models, industrial designs, selection achievements, production secrets (know-how ), the exclusive rights to which belong to these scientific institutions. Let us note that the contribution to the authorized capital will be the right to use the results of intellectual activity.
Innovative development of the enterprise
In developed countries, development and innovation are critical to socio-economic development, the key to economic and national security. State regulation of the economy and innovation processes is especially relevant in times of crisis and post-crisis times, when innovation can serve as a springboard in economic activity.The state can act both directly and indirectly. A specific measure can be used by the state in various economic conditions. State intervention in the economy is ambiguous in all countries and may vary.
State innovation policy is a federal body of the constituent entities of the federation for determining the priorities of innovation strategy, regulating innovation activities and improving support for innovation activities, innovation activities of small and medium-sized businesses, protecting intellectual property in the innovation process, and protecting national interests in international relations in this area.
It is represented in the government of the Russian Federation in the developed concept of socio-economic development of Russia in the long and medium term.
The main goals of state innovation policy in the Russian Federation:
Promoting innovation, increasing the competitiveness of domestic products based on scientific and technological achievements and updating production;
. focus on full support of fundamental innovations and improvements is the basis of the modern technological structure;
. combination of innovation activities with the effective functioning of the market mechanism of competitive innovation and intellectual property protection;
. promoting innovation in Russian regions, interregional and international technology transfer, international investment cooperation, protecting the interests of national innovative entrepreneurship.
The state supports and stimulates innovation activities by:
Improving the regulatory framework for innovation;
participation in financing budgets of different levels;
organizing public procurement of high-tech products and advanced technologies to ensure guaranteed distribution;
creation, in accordance with legislation, of favorable conditions to stimulate Russian and foreign investors investing in innovative programs and projects.
The Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of the Russian Federation, in determining the forms and methods of government influence on the economy, develops innovative strategies and measures to stimulate innovation, sets priorities for the development of national economies and regions, organizes the development of a federal target program for the development of priority industries and sectors of the economy.
The Ministry of Finance helps ensure innovation policy and audit of financial resources.
The main mechanisms that implement the innovation policy of the Russian Federation are the accelerated development of knowledge-intensive industries, financial and credit mechanisms, due to laws and regulations, institutional mechanisms of transformation in the field of education, exports and customs regulations.
Government regulation innovation activity determines the general direction of the country's innovative development, and each company has the right to develop and implement innovative projects.
Innovative enterprise management
The discrepancy between the quality of a process and the requirements placed on it is called process imperfection. The term was introduced by E. Downs. With the establishment of this fact, the search for alternatives to action begins. The criterion for assessing the quality of the process is economic efficiency, expressed in success in the market - customer satisfaction. The inconsistency of the process is generated by: 1) incorrect expectations of the decision-making agent; 2) the emergence of other satisfaction criteria; 3) technological innovations; 4) innovations in the distribution of power between individuals and groups; 5) innovations in market conditions: 6) innovations in technology in the macroenvironment; 7) innovations in the status of the organization in the hierarchy of power in the context of the environment.Social change creates a situation of imperfection (lag) of the activity process, which is a contradiction between what the organization could do thanks to the target opportunity created by the environment, and what it actually does in terms of using this opportunity. Imperfections in the process may be caused by purely social factors, for example, the departure of a key expert from the organization. The imperfection of the activity process contributes to the creation of new innovative opportunities. It is this fact that serves as the basis for the integration of particular theories of industrial management theory, which explain the processes of managing an organization, with modern concepts of marketing and organization of design work. When searching for means to eliminate process imperfections, a significant burden on the innovation agent occurs at the decision-making stage. The latter is accepted as rational human process, including both individual and social phenomena, based on factual and value principles, which includes the selection of a behavior pattern from a number of alternative patterns in order to achieve the desired state of the subject’s connections.
An innovative solution based on discrepancies must be clearly defined and fit into existing technology and resources. The subject associated with this type of activity is able to recognize the discrepancy. Inconsistencies between the form and content of the process do not arise along with any event in the environment, although it is still the external event that most often helps to realize the need for the process. To successfully implement innovative solutions based on the needs of the process, five main criteria are required: 1) process autonomy; 2) one “weak” or “missing” link; 3) clear definition of the goal; 4) specification of the solution; 5) a high level of receptivity or broad understanding of the benefits of the proposed innovation. An effective innovation policy (in the presence of the above criteria) is associated with the consistent implementation of an algorithm consisting of the following actions: 1) analysis of opportunities: 2) accumulation of specialized information; 3) developing a simple and functional invention; 4) deepening the specialization of innovation, expressed in the desire to satisfy the needs of a specific market segment. The features of the phenomenon of process needs are brilliantly described in the works of P. Drucker. Innovations in industry structure are also a source of innovation. From the point of view of the sectoral structure of the economy, the need for constant innovation is associated with the need to become a leader or to maintain the success achieved by a subject in a particular market. Indicators of upcoming innovations may be: 1) rapid growth of the industry; 2) conservation of existing leaders’ ideas about the market; 3) convergence of competitors' technologies. Demographic innovations are a factor influencing the formation of innovations. The analysis of demographic innovations begins with an assessment of data on the composition of the population. The most important aspects of demographic phenomena are gender and age distribution and professional segmentation.
The main problem of change management, extremely strongly interconnected with factors of organizational culture, is the emergence of the phenomenon of resistance to innovation, the agent of which becomes a certain social group (after all, the adoption of innovation is the result of a group decision, i.e. a function of collective action, expressed in the formation of group consensus regarding proposed innovation). The reasons for the rejection of innovations lie in the sphere of consciousness of individuals involved in the process of innovation, and the state of consciousness and, consequently, the decision about the quality of the actions taken by the subject is a function of the objective position of the individual in the organization. Resistance to innovation can be the result of both the influence of situational attitudes and the action of cultural, social and communication variables.
Resistance to innovation is understood as any behavior of a member of an organization aimed at disrupting and discrediting the ongoing transformations. Innovation differentiates the structure of the recipient of innovation and forms two subsystems - a potential supporter and an agent of resistance to innovation. This phenomenon is a direct consequence of the factor of uncertainty, which lies in innovation and is perceived by a certain part of individuals as a threat to their stable position within the existing social system. The source of resistance is often the individual’s illusions about his own importance, and resistance to innovation is inversely proportional to the individual’s desire to gain new experience and receive new rewards.
In this regard, the methodological value of the research initiated by K. Levin is extremely great, A characteristic result was the emergence of the concept of a force field emerging in organizational dynamics during a period of intense structural transformations. Structural transformation, the purpose of which is to increase the efficiency of the system, is understood as an evolutionary process consisting of three main stages: 1) “unfreezing” (institutionalization of doubts about the effectiveness of existing cultural stereotypes); 2) innovations (mastery of new information, knowledge); 3) “freezing” (integration of knowledge into a pattern of activity, routinization of skills, transition to a more efficient level of system functioning). The organization is presented here in the form of a certain social space, the state of which in a temporal perspective depends on the balance of forces that limit and support the vectors of emerging innovations. The organizational structure is characterized by both phases of transformation and phases of relative equilibrium of interacting forces. The reasons for equilibrium lie in the inertia of individuals and the social systems they compose. Structural transformation is ensured by the sequence of actions of the management system: 1) the formation of new forces that support innovation; 2) gradual transformation of limiting forces; 3) increasing the power of supporting forces; 4) reducing the power of limiting forces; 5) the final transformation of limiting forces into forces supporting innovation. The sociocultural aspects of these processes are emphasized: the agent of innovation provides the innovation process with gradual innovations in the field of cultural norms - values, principles, expectations and attitudes shared by members of the organization.
According to researchers, the structure of the decision-making process contains the potential for resistance to innovation, and at the organizational level is a function of individual decision-making processes. The process begins with the individual's perception of need, need and innovation. In this case, the time aspects of the process are not important. In general, the study of these processes is quite problematic, since their results are constantly affected by the attitudes of researchers.
The recipient's passage through various phases of adaptation changes attitudes and behavior. Individuals agree with an innovation when: 1) the situation is relevant to their experience (biography); 2) they are competent; 3) they have the power to implement the innovation. Adopters who emerge at the earliest stages of an innovation's life cycle tend to be familiar with the subject matter of the innovation process.
From the point of view of motivational aspects, any convenient form of behavior (habit) and behavior that effectively solves a given problem the first time acts as a factor that forms resistance to innovation. Current attitudes themselves are a resistance factor that determines the conservative nature of behavior. At the installation stage, three components are included - cognitive, affective and behavioral. Beliefs develop in an individual as a result of obtaining information in the process of social interactions, reading advertising materials, analytical reviews, etc. Such beliefs are called peripheral (secondary). They can change if the authority that supports them changes its status and role position. The affective component at this stage is expressed insignificantly and clearly manifests itself at the stage active actions(behavior).
The legitimation stage is the period when the individual seeks support for the action he is deciding to take. Acceptability of action, which is of primary importance, is achieved by observing the behavior of other people and seeking approval from one's reference group. An important component of the process of gaining legitimacy is interaction, the insufficiency of which serves as a source of resistance. The latter is closely related to the phenomenon of dependence, when an individual cannot do without the support of other people - as was the case in childhood in his relationship with his parents. The nature of the innovation and the situation may not allow the individual to experience the innovation in the literal sense of the word - then we are faced with the phenomenon of replacement innovation. The innovative experience of an individual who does not trust his abilities contains a denial of innovation.
At the assessment stage, all the pros and cons of participation/refusal to participate in the innovation process are determined. The pronounced emotional component of an individual’s state influences the final formation of value orientations in relation to innovation.
Developing a solution is the last stage of the process. There is a high probability of dissonance arising here, which is a consequence of a situation where an individual is forced to choose from several attractive opportunities. Homeostasis, as the desire to maintain the existing state, can serve as a source of resistance to innovation.
In the context of studying the phenomenon of social innovation, the main goal of management when implementing innovations is seen to be establishing and ensuring group balance and supporting the adaptation of individuals, the conditions of which were dictated by the process of transformation. They saw the preservation of group balance as a necessary condition for the effective implementation of innovations. Equilibrium (homeostasis) is a characteristic of an organization that describes the organization’s ability to restore and maintain the balance of interests of individuals and protect it from significant disturbances. Each individual has a certain level of tolerance to ongoing innovations due to the special physiological, mental and social costs of adaptation of the individual. Exceeding a certain “limit” of costs threatens the individual with severe stress and overload, and the organization with potential failure of the innovation process. An increase in the scale of innovation entails an increase in the costs of its implementation, and the speed at which the results of innovation appear is inversely proportional to their scale.
Experts identify three types of individual resistance to innovation:
1) logical (rational);
2) psychological (emotional - installations, attitudes);
3) social (determined by the influence of the group on the individual).
In the implementation phase, the losing party may or may not consider the issue at hand with equal probability. If the problem is not addressed, then the minority 1) resists innovation (its behavior affects the efficiency and effectiveness of implementation): 2) requires a revision of the initiation phase of the organizational development process. The phenomenon of the first type is characteristic of an authoritarian style of decision-making, the second - of a collective one. Destabilization of the organizational system at the stage of innovation initiation is caused by the entry into the organization new information, new knowledge - in connection with the use of unusual vocabulary when transmitting information (the phenomenon of communication differentiation or the barrier of the codification scheme was studied by F.J. Roethlisberger, K.R. Rogers, K.C. Deutsch, K. Young. Resistance to the entry of new information can be caused by status differences between the potential donor and recipient. The higher the status of the potential donor organization, the less likely it is that information will be transferred. In addition, the economic ability to implement the innovation must be felt. Often, studies track the dependence of the formation of defects in information transfer on the weakness of communication channels.
An innovation may not be accepted due to its potential impact on existing social ties in the organization, as it threatens the hierarchy of power and prestige that has developed on the basis of the established technology, or more precisely, the control system it offers. Innovators pose a personal threat to certain social circles of the organization. The reason for resistance may also lie in what is called local pride. The organization is unique, and future innovations may deprive it of this uniqueness. A factor of resistance to innovation is the business system (technology) used in an organization, especially if it brings certain positive results: a truly difficult obstacle to the implementation of innovative solutions is the successful current functioning of the organization - in that it is “healthy”, and not is that it is corroded by bureaucracy, red tape and complacency.
The obstacle also lies in the division of labor and the associated role structure of the organization. There is a high probability of competition between departments. In this case, we will talk about the process of redistribution of limited resources. The quality of connections between departments deteriorates and most often develops into conflict. The fundamental problem of intergroup competition is the conflict of goals and violations (defects) of communication between them.
Innovative potential of the enterprise
An important characteristic of the intensity and efficiency of innovative processes at an enterprise is its innovative potential.Innovation potential reflects the ability of an enterprise to improve or update; it characterizes the maximum volume of innovative products that is possible with the full use of existing innovative resources. The innovative resources of any organization are understood as the totality of financial, intellectual and material resources that an enterprise has to carry out innovation.
Thus, the internal innovative resources of the enterprise include:
1) personnel of the organization;
2) achieved technical and technological level;
3) compliance of organizational management structures and management systems with the tasks of the innovation process;
4) intellectual property in the form of intangible assets;
5) scientific and technical reserve in the form of unfinished innovative projects;
6) the presence of an effective communication infrastructure;
7) financial support for innovation activities.
1. The organization’s personnel as an innovative resource are characterized by the level of professional training, trainability and innovativeness of the personnel. The results of a study conducted by consulting companies showed that enterprise managers consider the qualifications of personnel to be the main factor hindering the development of the organization (78% of surveyed managers). In innovative activities, this factor becomes key. A high professional and educational level of employees is a necessary condition for its innovativeness. Therefore, the share of engineering and technical workers at the enterprise with higher education professional education, with enough high degree accuracy characterizes the innovativeness of the organization as a whole. The innovative level is associated with the training and self-learning ability of the enterprise’s personnel, i.e. the desire and ability of employees to acquire new professional knowledge and skills. In many ways, the condition for the implementation of these personnel abilities is the innovativeness of the enterprise management, i.e. ability to make significant changes in the strategy and tactics of the organization. Innovativeness of personnel is their ability to generate ideas and implement them effectively. Thus, the components of personnel innovation in the ZM corporation, which is one of the world leaders in innovation, are: development of technological types of competencies; customer-centric strategic perspective; creative thinking when making decisions; leadership and influence on staff in project implementation; personal effectiveness and mentoring; continuous training and improvement of employees; orientation towards final results.
2. A prerequisite and source of innovative activity of enterprises is the achieved technical and technological level. The higher the technical and technological level of production, the more radical the innovations are and the more inaccessible to imitation by competitors.
3. As an innovative resource of an enterprise, the corresponding organizational structures and management system, as well as their important characteristic such as flexibility, are of great importance.
The organizational structure of the organization must meet the following requirements:
1) the possibility of creating weakly structured innovative teams of a temporary nature (including those including employees of various departments of the enterprise) at an early stage of innovation development;
2) the presence of an organizational mechanism for formalizing and strengthening the status of a temporary innovation team if it successfully passes early stage development (in-house venture);
3) the presence of an effective mechanism for motivating and stimulating innovative activity.
4. The main innovative resource of any organization currently is the intangible assets (codified knowledge) that it has. Intangible assets are intangible resources of an organization (they cannot be clearly defined financial assessment), and this is what makes them a source of sustainable competitive advantage. Information about the company’s tangible resources, due to the possibility of their assessment, is available to everyone (to one degree or another), including competitors, and therefore, if there are sufficient financial resources, it is easily copied. Intangible financial resources are not sufficiently visible and incomprehensible to the competitor, and therefore are not repeated by them. An inevitable consequence of the modern technological revolution is the increasing role of intangible assets, “the value of production capacity for enterprises becomes lower than the value of intangible assets.” Intangible assets bring a tangible effect - the ratio of the market value of companies and their accounting valuation in a number of companies has increased to a ratio of almost three to one or more. Russian companies are also experiencing an increase in their capitalization due to intangible assets. The ratio of the market value of a number of large companies to their equity capital ranges from 1.7 times in extractive industries and up to 3.5 times in high-tech industries. Despite the expansion of the service sector, the economic and competitive potential of developed countries is determined by the state and development of its industrial complex, but at the same time, “the hull of a ship is estimated to be approximately two times cheaper than its internal, primarily electronic, filling.”
5. A significant innovative resource of an enterprise carrying out its own developments within the framework of an innovation strategy is the backlog of unfinished research and development work. These are not only unfinished studies, but also those previously terminated for various reasons, including due to negative results (indicating unpromising directions for innovative searches).
6. A significant component of the innovative potential of an enterprise is the presence of effective innovative communications that make it possible to ensure comprehensive interaction between all participants in innovation activity during the implementation of the relevant stages of the innovation process.
7. General condition success of innovation activities - sufficient funding. The level of financing depends on the financial condition of the enterprise, the strategic priority of innovation activities, the chosen innovation development strategy, and previous innovation results. The level of financing is characterized by the innovativeness of the enterprise, including in dynamics and in comparison with competitors.
Thus, intellectual resources (material, organizational and financial) are a prerequisite and condition for the innovation process and constitute an objective characteristic of the innovative potential of an enterprise. Each component of innovation potential is assessed according to a number of parameters. The total innovative potential of an enterprise is complex function potentials of individual types of resources, which should be the subject of specific creative analysis in each case. It is important for an enterprise to analyze the contribution of each innovative resource to increasing the efficiency of the enterprise, the full implementation of which can be carried out with the least financial investment. In this case, an essential factor is time - short, medium or long term.
Individual components of the innovation resource base can be rather long-term weak points of the enterprise's innovative potential. Analysis of innovation potential suggests the most effective areas of innovation activity and identifies optimal innovation strategies. The concept of innovation potential will provide not only a static description of the innovation activity of an enterprise, but will also provide opportunities for in-depth innovation analysis and making operational and strategic decisions.
In the literature, there are two approaches to assessing innovation potential:
1) detailed, in which innovative potential is assessed using a system of indicators in order to identify the possibility of implementing a specific project;
2) diagnostic, which consists of analyzing the state of enterprises according to a number of external and internal parameters, mainly using expert methods.
Determining the type of innovative potential on this basis allows you to control the correctness of the chosen direction of innovative development from the standpoint of the current and future financial condition of the enterprise. The formed method can become a meaningful basis for the formation of a strategy for innovative development and effective commercialization of new technologies.
Enterprises now have an effective tool for assessing innovative opportunities, as well as selecting likely feasible technological development strategies. At the stage of developing strategic plans, an enterprise can exclude impracticable (from the point of view of financial support) projects from the list of alternatives being considered and subsequently avoid the problem of lost profits due to the freezing of innovative projects.
Assessing the innovative potential of an enterprise is of great importance in the process of managing intellectual property when searching for an effective partner for transferring the results of research and development in order to introduce them into economic circulation.
Enterprise innovation strategy
An innovation strategy is one of the means of achieving the goals of an enterprise, which differs from other means in its novelty, primarily for a given company and, possibly, for the industry, market, and consumers. The innovation strategy is subordinated to the overall strategy of the enterprise. It sets the goals of innovation activity, the choice of means to achieve them and the sources of attracting these funds.Innovation strategies create particularly challenging conditions for project, company and corporate management.
These conditions include:
Increased level of uncertainty of results. This forces us to develop such a specific function as innovation risk management;
increasing investment risks of projects. The portfolio of innovative projects is dominated by medium-term and especially long-term projects. We have to look for riskier investors. A qualitatively new management object appears before the management system of this organization - an innovation and investment project;
increased flow of changes in the organization due to innovative restructuring. Streams of strategic change should be combined with stable ongoing production processes. It is required to ensure a combination of interests and coordination of decisions of strategic, scientific and technical, financial, production, and marketing management.
There are many different types of strategy: offensive, defensive (defensive), intermediate, absorbing, imitation, robber, etc.
An offensive innovation strategy is characterized by a high level of risk and efficiency. An offensive strategy requires a focus on research (in many cases even fundamental research) combined with the use of the latest technologies. This type of strategy requires high skill in developing innovations, the ability to quickly implement innovations, and the ability to anticipate market needs. It is typical for large associations and companies, when the industry is dominated by several companies with a weak leader. But an offensive strategy can also be implemented by small enterprises (especially innovative organizations) if they concentrate their efforts on one or two innovative projects.
A defensive (defensive) strategy is characterized by a low level of risk, a fairly high level of technical (design and technological) developments and a certain gained market share. With a defensive strategy, enterprises are distinguished by a high level of technology and production technology, the quality of their products, relatively low production costs and try to maintain their market positions. This strategy is used by enterprises that make significant profits in a competitive environment. These companies have a stronger position in marketing and production compared to innovation, research and development.
An intermediate strategy is characterized by the use of the weaknesses of competitors and the strengths of the enterprise, as well as the absence (in the first stages) of direct confrontation with competitors. With an intermediate innovation strategy, enterprises (mostly small ones) fill gaps in the specialization of other enterprises, including those dominant in their industry. An analysis of the economic situation and external environment carried out when choosing a strategy reveals such gaps (niches) in the set of released innovations. The presence of such niches is explained by a certain weakness of other enterprises (including the leader), lack of their capabilities or unwillingness to fill existing gaps (for example, due to a small market). This strategy is often used in relation to modifications of basic models of innovation. For example, the development, development and marketing of computers for scientific research, for on-board systems (aircraft, etc.) and gaming. Or the market for household appliances created on the basis of their basic models used in other areas (in the defense industry, healthcare, etc.).
The absorption strategy (licensing) involves the use of innovative developments made by other organizations. Innovations are so diverse in the degree of complexity and novelty that even large associations (companies) with powerful divisions for innovative developments (R&D services) cannot carry out work on the entire range of effective innovations. Therefore, many of them pursue innovation policy not only on the basis of using innovations obtained on their own, but also taking into account the opportunities to use innovations developed by others. This means that they use an absorptive innovation strategy along with another (for example, an offensive one).
The imitation strategy is characterized by the fact that enterprises use innovations (product, technological, management) released on the market from other organizations with some improvements and modernization. These enterprises have a high production culture, organizational and technological potential, are well aware of market requirements, and sometimes have quite strong market positions. In this case, innovations developed and mastered by both large enterprises and small innovative organizations can be taken as a basis. Often, such imitating enterprises occupy a leading position in their industry and in their respective markets, surpassing the original innovating leader. Under certain conditions, the imitation strategy becomes very profitable.
The robber strategy can be used in cases where fundamental innovations have an impact on the technical and operational parameters of products (for example, increasing the service life, their reliability) that were produced previously. The spread of fundamental innovations leads to a decrease in the size of the market for the latter. This strategy is usually used by small innovative organizations from a different area, but with new technologies, fundamentally new technical solutions for the production of already manufactured products. This strategy can also be chosen by enterprises from the same area with hitherto weak market positions if they have breakthrough technologies at a certain stage. The robber strategy is effective only at the initial stages of the dissemination and implementation of innovations.
In addition to these types of strategy, the innovation strategy of enterprises can be aimed at creating a completely new market for the sale of a fundamentally new product (technology), attracting specialists from competing organizations and merging (sometimes absorption, acquisition) with other organizations that have high scientific and technical potential and an innovative spirit . In practical innovation activity there is a combination of these types of strategies, so it is important to determine the proportions on the basis of which resources are distributed between these strategies.
The basis of the domestic classification is biological approach to the classification of competitive behavior, proposed by the Russian scientist L.G. Ramensky, and used to classify companies and corresponding competitive strategies.
According to this approach, strategic behavior can be divided into four types:
1. violent, characteristic of large companies engaged in mass production, entering the mass market with their own or acquired new products, outstripping competitors due to serial production and economies of scale. In Russia, these include large complexes of the defense and civilian industries;
2. patent, which consists in adapting to narrow segments of a wide market (niches) through the specialized release of new or modernized products with unique characteristics;
3. experiential, meaning entering the market with a new (radically innovative) product and capturing part of the market;
4. commutative, consisting of adapting to the demand conditions of the local market, filling niches that, for one reason or another, are not occupied by “violents” and “patients”, mastering new types of services after the emergence of new products and new technologies, imitation of new products and promoting them to the highest to a wide range of consumers.
The author of the designations for types of firms associated by competitive behavior with the animal world (“foxes”, “mice”, “lions”, etc.) is the Swiss expert H. Friesewinkel. The classifications of Ramensky and Friesewinkel combine well with each other.
Large firms engaged in mass production have great resource power and, naturally, they are characterized by forceful competitive and innovative behavior in the market, which is usually called violent.
Violent firms have large sizes, a large number of employees, many branches and subsidiaries, a complete range of products, and the ability to mass produce. They are characterized by large expenditures on R&D, production, marketing and distribution networks. This requires serious investment. Their constant problem is capacity utilization.
Violent products are of high quality, associated with a high level of standardization, unification and manufacturability, and low prices characteristic of mass production. Many violents are transnational companies that create an oligopolistic market.
The areas of activity of violents are not limited in any way. They can be found in all industries: mechanical engineering, electronics, pharmaceuticals, services, etc.
Types of violents can be divided according to the stages of their evolutionary development, depending on the dynamics of development:
1. “proud lion” - a type of violent who is characterized by the most dynamic pace of development. This group can be divided into subgroups: “leaders”, “vice leaders” and the rest;
2. “mighty elephant” - a type with less dynamic development and expanded diversification as compensation for the loss of a leader position in the industry;
3. “sluggish hippopotamus” - a type of violent who has lost the dynamics of development, has become overly carried away by wide diversification and has scattered his forces.
Patient firms (“sly foxes”) can be of different sizes: small, medium and even occasionally large. A patent strategy is a strategy for differentiating products and occupying a niche, a narrow segment of the market.
In a patent (niche) strategy, two components of the substrategy are clearly visible:
Focus on product differentiation;
the need to focus maximum efforts on a narrow market segment.
Product differentiation is a step towards the consumer who does not need mass standard products. It also allows the patient to open his own business producing differentiated products. In this case, the patient takes advantage of differences in product quality, service and advertising.
In specialized production, the margin of competitiveness of a product arises mainly due to the high consumer value of the product. The patient has to accurately determine and provide it.
Exploring companies are mostly small organizations. Their main role in the economy is innovative, consisting in the creation of radical, “breakthrough” innovations: new products and new technologies in all sectors of the national economy.
As creators of radical innovations, exploratory firms, or so-called “swallows,” are distinguished by their determination, dedication to the idea, high professional level of employees and leaders, and large expenditures on R&D.
Small businesses are important not only for their numbers, but also for their ability to solve functional problems posed by the economy:
1. serve local needs;
2. perform production functions at the part level and increase the efficiency of large-scale production;
3. fill the infrastructure of production processes;
4. stimulate the entrepreneurship of the country's citizens;
5. increase employment, especially in non-industrial settlements.
Small firms, satisfying local and narrow group or even individual demand, thereby link the economy throughout the entire space. They take on everything that does not arouse interest among violents, patients and experimenters. Their role is unifying, connecting. That's why they were called "commutants."
The role of “gray mice” in the innovation process is twofold: they contribute, on the one hand, to the diffusion of innovations, and on the other, to their routinization. The innovation process is thus expanded and accelerated.
Small firms actively promote new products and technologies, creating new services based on them en masse. This speeds up the process of diffusion of innovations.
Commuters also actively participate in the process of routinization of innovations due to their tendency to imitate activities and through the organization of new services based on new technologies.
There are various options for classifying innovation strategies. In particular, L.G. Kudinov divided the enterprise’s innovative strategies into two groups:
1. R&D strategies;
2. strategies for introducing and adapting innovations.
R&D strategies are related to the enterprise's implementation of research and development. They determine the nature of borrowing ideas, investing in R&D, and their relationship with existing types of products and processes.
To this group L.G. Kudinov relates:
Licensing strategy (the strategy is used when an enterprise bases its R&D activities on the acquisition of research licenses for the results of research and development of scientific, technical or other organizations. In this case, both unfinished and completed developments are acquired for the purpose of their further development and use in the implementation process own R&D. As a result, the enterprise receives its own Results in a much shorter time and often at lower costs);
research leadership strategy (aimed at achieving a long-term presence of the enterprise at the forefront in the field of certain R&D. This strategy assumes the desire to be at the forefront for most types of products initial stages growth. However, it requires constant investment in new R&D, which is impossible for many Russian enterprises in modern conditions of scarcity of financial resources);
life cycle strategy (means that R&D is strictly tied to the life cycles of manufactured products and processes used by the enterprise. It allows you to constantly accumulate R&D results that can be used to replace retired products and processes);
parallel development strategy (involves the acquisition of a technological license for a finished product or process. In this case, the goal is to accelerate their experimental development and carry out their own developments taking it into account. This strategy can be used if the goal is to accelerate the development of new products and processes in the presence of developments that can be purchased outside the enterprise, and also subject to a reduction in the ability of competitors to master these innovations. It allows for innovative development on its own basis, contributes to the growth of the enterprise’s market share and, accordingly, increases the efficiency of its activities.);
strategy of advanced knowledge intensity (used if an enterprise is characterized by a desire to increase the knowledge intensity of products above the industry average. It can be applied in conditions of intense competition, when the time for a new product to enter the market is important, or during periods when it is important to get ahead of other enterprises in areas of reducing prices and production costs);
strategies for introducing and adapting innovations relate to the system of updating production, bringing products to markets, and using technological advantages.
Strategies for introducing and adapting innovations are divided into the following main types:
Product range support strategy (consists in the enterprise’s desire to improve the consumer properties of traditional products produced that are not subject to severe obsolescence);
retro-innovation strategy (applies to outdated, but in demand and in-use products. For example, the production of spare parts for complex equipment with a long service life. Innovation here will be aimed at improving their manufacturing processes);
strategy for maintaining technological positions (used by enterprises that occupy strong competitive positions, but for certain reasons at some stages of their development experience a strong and unexpected onslaught of competitors and do not have the opportunity to invest the necessary funds in updating production and products. It cannot be successful in the long term );
strategy of product and process imitation (reduces to the fact that the enterprise borrows technologies from outside. Such borrowing is carried out in relation to both products and the processes of their production. If already used technologies are acquired, then there is a danger of releasing outdated products. This strategy can be effective in cases where the enterprise lags far behind competitors in its scientific and technical potential or enters a new business area);
strategy of stage overcoming (involves a transition to higher stages of technological development, bypassing lower ones. It is closely related to imitation strategies, as well as to the strategy of advanced knowledge intensity, which are used as methods of implementation.);
technology transfer strategy (implemented by the parent enterprises of vertically integrated structures, which transfer already proven technologies to small enterprises included in the structure. They, as a rule, work for larger ones and therefore are forced to use the technologies offered to them. The strategy of such “receiving” enterprises is called the strategy of vertical borrowing .);
technological connectivity strategy (used when an enterprise carries out technologically related innovations, i.e. manufactures technologically related products (in the event that permanently technologically related products account for more than 70% of output);
market-following strategy (aims the enterprise to produce the most profitable product that is in market demand at a given point in time. It can be used at the initial stages of enterprise development, when product release priorities have not yet been determined);
vertical borrowing strategy (typical for small enterprises within large vertically integrated structures that are forced to adopt and borrow technologies from the leading enterprises of these structures.);
radical advance strategy (expresses the actions of the enterprise and its desire to be the first to enter the market with a radically new product (or produce it in a new way). In some cases, it is assumed that two R&D strategies will be implemented - research leadership and advanced knowledge intensity. The radical advance strategy is very expensive and has a large share risk.However, it justifies itself in cases of application in young companies with advanced developments in products and processes);
strategy of waiting for the leader (adopted by large leading firms during periods when new products enter the market, the demand for which has not yet been determined. Initially, a small firm enters the market, and then, if successful, the leader takes over the initiative).
Any strategic decisions in the field of innovation management require detailed study in terms of financing innovation and managing emerging risks.
Innovative activity of the enterprise
The innovation system is an integral part common system enterprise management, and the identification of a certain class of management tasks is due to the efforts of top management to create and debug appropriate management processes.Innovation in modern business practice is not an end in itself, but a means of increasing business competitiveness.
Ultimately, the factor of innovative development should lead to an improvement in market positions:
Development of new market segments (market expansion);
- increasing the company’s share in existing product markets;
- improving financial and economic indicators (increasing turnover, profits, profitability, reducing costs, increasing business value, stock price, etc.);
- formation of a favorable image of an innovative company.
What internal company criteria can be used to assess the success of the innovative development of an enterprise?
Overall rating the level of innovative development can be carried out according to the criterion of the share of new products in the total volume of production. This criterion is objectively calculated based on statistics of the production and economic activity of the enterprise. Although the use of this indicator is limited, because it does not take into account the depth of changes made to a new product (the temptation to classify a product as “new” may lie in the “cosmetic” improvement of the product, the use of a new packaging design, the introduction of “improving” modernization, the release of a product under a new brand and etc.).
Of course, improving innovations make it possible to maintain the competitiveness of a product, reflecting changes in consumer demand. However, breakthrough and basic innovations play a decisive role in increasing business competitiveness. Of course, this circumstance should be reflected in the methodology for assessing the level of innovative development of an enterprise, taking into account the quality (level) of the innovation itself.
Since we are talking about assessing the level of innovative development, that is, how dynamically the product range changes, the “age” (production period) of new products has different weights: “younger” products have greater significance compared to products that have been produced for quite some time. for a long time. Due to the fact that industrial sectors have different innovation dynamics, the “age threshold” for innovation can change both less (for dynamically developing industries) and more (for inertial industries). In general, the lifespan of an innovation is determined by the market: a product remains innovative as long as it is perceived by the consumer as new. Beyond this period, the product continues to be produced and sold, but it will no longer be an innovation.
The maximum rank on a five-point scale is 5. The minimum rank is 0 for products produced beyond the established “innovation threshold.”
The value of UIR lies within 0
The value of the UIR coefficient:
From 0 to 1.0 – corresponds to a low level of innovative development of the enterprise;
- from 1.0 to 2 – below average;
- from 2 to 3 – average level;
- from 3 to 4 – above average;
- above 4 – high level.
Innovation can concern not only the development of products, but also the development of the organization’s resources (financial, human, information resources, production and social infrastructure). Organizational development of companies is also an area of application of innovative activity.
The innovation system of an enterprise must cover all structural divisions, all levels and levels of management. In each structural unit, in each workplace, innovative proposals can and should be born, which will ultimately determine the strategy and tactics of innovative development of the enterprise.
Effective management of innovation processes is possible if there is a developed motivational system.
A motivational innovation system is created with the aim of:
Initiating innovative activity of employees;
- adequate assessment of the results of innovative activities of managers and specialists at various levels and their subsequent encouragement;
- strengthening communication links between company departments;
- integration and transformation of innovative activities of employees of various departments into market success.
Within the framework of the motivational innovation system, a mechanism is created for assessing the effectiveness of intra-company innovations with the definition of criteria and evaluation methods, forms and methods of motivation.
To develop ideas for assessing innovative activity, a methodology for intra-company assessment of innovation is proposed.
The overall score is derived as a weighted average of points determined by experts for each innovation activity.
The assessment helps to identify weak links in innovation management and, accordingly, eliminate them, select the most effective solutions, and then reward the winners.
Enterprise innovation system
Today Russia needs a transition to an innovative path of development, the development of fundamentally new, competitive technologies and products, and the innovative renewal of critically outdated production assets of many domestic enterprises.The Government of the Russian Federation has approved the "Fundamentals of the policy of the Russian Federation in the field of development of science and technology", an action plan for the implementation of the "Fundamentals". A draft strategy for the Russian Federation in the field of development of science and innovation has been developed. The Government's increased attention to the problems of the domestic research and development sector is aimed at creating a national innovation system, which should ensure technological modernization of the economy and increase its competitiveness based on advanced technologies, transforming scientific potential into one of the main resources for sustainable economic growth.
In a market economy, measures to support innovative enterprises and stimulate innovation processes and technology transfer processes developed by the state can only indirectly influence the increase in the innovative activity of enterprises. The draft strategy of the Russian Federation in the field of development of science and innovation provides for an increase in spending on research and development in relation to GDP from 1.36%. At the same time, the share of extrabudgetary funds in domestic research and development costs should increase from 41% to 70%. The target indicators included in the draft strategy indicate that the success of its implementation largely depends on Russian enterprises, and not only on government support and incentive measures.
Domestic enterprises today need their own innovation systems, organically woven into higher-level regional and national innovation systems (RIS and NIS, respectively). The enterprise innovation system (IIS) is understood as a set of economic agents and activities, resource provision and institutions, as well as connections between them, which are important for increasing the efficiency of the innovation process in a company.
The purpose of creating COI is:
Increasing the competitiveness of the enterprise's products;
- creating an innovation base for long-term sustainable growth of the company;
- ensuring the economic security of the enterprise.
The ISP must perform the following functions:
Market forecasting and selection of priority research areas;
- Strategic planning of innovative activities of the enterprise;
- Search, evaluation and selection of innovative ideas and inventions;
- Introduction of innovative projects;
- Monitoring the indicators of already implemented innovative projects and their adjustment.
For the effective functioning of the ISP, close cooperation between enterprises and research institutes, universities, and technology transfer centers is necessary in the search and acquisition of technologies, the search and hiring of qualified personnel, and orders for development.
The successful functioning of the ISP is impossible without a supporting structure, which includes the following main subsystems:
1. Financial support. Depending on the form of ownership, size and profile of the enterprise, a greater or lesser bias towards receiving government subsidies, bank loans, venture financing, or creating and using the resources of its own innovation fund is possible.
2. Information support. Includes the creation of a local intranet network, ensuring access to information for all responsible executives, as well as automation of management processes and the development of information channels for cooperation with elements of the innovation infrastructure of RIS and NIS.
3. Legal support. Includes the entire set of regulatory documentation that formalizes and regulates the business processes of the innovation system, as well as the activities of responsible executors. In addition, it ensures obtaining patents and confidentiality of trade secrets.
4. Organizational and legal support. It represents formalized business processes, an organizational structure of an innovative unit built in accordance with business processes and operations, and also regulates information flows between units.
5. Staffing. The goal is to search for personnel within the enterprise and in the external environment, train them and horizontal rotation to increase creative potential.
For the successful operation of the ISP, close interaction between the innovation department (ensuring the functioning of the ISP) and the department developing new products (marketing department, development department, etc.) is necessary.
Within the framework of the draft strategy of the Russian Federation in the field of development of science and innovation, we can already talk about the need to create an ISP aimed at the following measures of state support:
Obtaining long-term loans for innovative projects at low interest rates, subsidized by the state.
- Focus on zero customs duties on the export of high-tech products and a general reduction in the tax burden.
- Use of state support in the process of product certification and the enterprise’s entry into foreign markets.
At the moment, we cannot talk about projects for introducing innovative systems at domestic enterprises. The appropriate methodology and algorithms for the development and implementation of such systems have yet to be developed. However, this should be done in the near future, before Russia misses the moment for an innovative breakthrough and taking its rightful place among the world's technological powers.
Innovative enterprise management
As a result of the development of our society, the entire modern technical civilization is the result of innovation.In domestic and foreign literature There are many definitions of innovation. In general, innovation is the process of updating or changing ideas and inventions, which subsequently take on economic content.
The organization of innovation management at an enterprise is a system of measures aimed at the rational combination of all its elements (tools of labor, objects of labor, innovation management technology) in a single process of innovation management. Tools of labor in innovation management are various technical means, the objects of labor are information products, and the technology of innovation management is a set of methods and forms of implementing an information product.
Innovative management in the activities of a small enterprise is a transition to a new, more advanced way of organizing activities, ensuring the growth of the capabilities of a small business structure. The introduction of innovations in an enterprise indicates a transition to a higher level of production capabilities, and therefore is one of the key indicators of enterprise development. The main motive for organizing innovative management is to obtain additional competitive advantages.
The process of organizing innovation management in a small enterprise includes the following stages: determining the goal of innovation management, choosing an innovation management strategy, determining innovation management techniques, developing an innovation management program, organizing work to implement the program, monitoring the implementation of the planned program, analyzing and evaluating the effectiveness of innovation management techniques , adjustment of innovation management techniques.
An important stage in the organization of innovation management is the development of an innovation management program. An innovation management program is a set of actions agreed upon in terms of timing, results and financial support to achieve a set goal. Program development is a labor-intensive process; its implementation requires: defining goals and objectives; development of various options for their solution; choosing one of the options and developing a comprehensive program for its implementation; creation of a mechanism for implementing a comprehensive program: appointment of performers, determination of their rights and obligations, allocation of work areas.
The organization of innovation management is laid down already during the creation and implementation of innovation, that is, in the innovation process itself. The innovation process serves as the basis on which the effectiveness of using innovation management techniques will depend.
Innovation management covers operational and strategic tasks of management, organization, planning and control of innovative processes in an enterprise. It must be understood as change-oriented management. Decision-making in innovation management differs from decision-making processes in other production areas, since innovative decisions are not routine, but require a broad understanding of the problems of the enterprise and the creative abilities of all employees.
Small businesses can use the following alternatives to successfully implement their innovative projects:
1) Small businesses cooperate with other companies as part of a cooperative strategy. With large-scale innovation, cooperation among small businesses is becoming increasingly common.
2) Small enterprises themselves develop innovative and technical prerequisites, and also independently implement the results obtained on the market.
The success of innovative management of small enterprises depends on whether the enterprise, along with the implementation, management and control of an innovative plan, will be able to create stimulating internal and external framework conditions (personnel policy, information and communication, financing, position and behavior of a top-level manager, organization).
The development of innovative projects is favorably affected by: a low degree of centralization, as well as the absence of too narrow specialization and the absence of bureaucratic barriers in the organization.
At the same time, small businesses face two problems when implementing innovative projects:
1) implementation of an innovative business plan and search for investors;
2) settlement of intellectual property rights.
Currently in the Russian Federation, both at the federal and regional levels, these problems are being solved by creating new laws and regulations. Small innovative businesses enjoy tax and other benefits, information and consulting support, and government support. In this area, forms of public-private partnership are being developed that make it possible to evenly share the risks of the innovation market between small innovative enterprises, the state and large companies.
Currently, the state economic policy of the Russian Federation in the field of innovation should be aimed at stimulating and creating new small high-tech enterprises and forming a venture business industry. This will increase the intellectual and technological potential of the country and achieve serious success on the path to building a strong and prosperous Russia.
Innovative economics of enterprise
Innovation activity is an activity aimed at searching for and implementing innovations in order to expand the range and improve the quality of products, improve technology and organize production.Innovation activities include:
Identifying enterprise problems;
implementation of the innovation process;
organization of innovative activities.
The main prerequisite for the innovative activity of an enterprise is that everything that exists is aging. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically discard everything that is worn out, outdated, and has become a brake on the path to progress, and also take into account errors, failures and miscalculations. To do this, enterprises periodically need to certify products, technologies and workplaces, analyze the market and distribution channels. In other words, a kind of X-ray photograph of all aspects of the enterprise’s activities should be carried out. This is not just a diagnosis of the production and economic activities of an enterprise, its products, markets, etc. Based on it, managers should be the first to think about how to make their products (services) obsolete themselves, and not wait until competitors do this. And this, in turn, will encourage enterprises to innovate. Practice shows: nothing forces a manager to focus on an innovative idea more than the realization that the product being manufactured will turn out to be obsolete in the near future.
Where do innovative ideas come from? We can name seven sources of such ideas. Let's list internal sources; they arise within an enterprise or industry.
These include:
1. unexpected event (for an enterprise or industry) - success, failure, external event;
2. incongruence - a discrepancy between reality (as it really is) and our ideas about it;
3. innovations based on the needs of the process;
4. sudden changes in industry or market structure.
The next three sources of innovation are external because they originate outside the enterprise or industry. This:
1. demographic changes;
2. changes in perceptions, moods and values;
3. new knowledge (both scientific and non-scientific).
Analysis of these situations when considering a particular type of change allows us to establish the nature of the innovative solution. In any case, you can always get answers to the following questions. What happens if we take advantage of the created change? Where can this lead the enterprise? What needs to be done to turn change into a source of development?
However, of the seven sources of change, the third and seventh are the most important, since they are the most radical in nature.
The change caused by the need of the process is much more important than the first two. The old saying goes: "necessity is the mother of invention." In this case, the change is based on the needs of practice, life (Replacing manual typing in book printing, maintaining the freshness of products, etc.).
However, the implementation of this type of change requires an understanding that:
It is not enough to feel the need, it is important to know and understand its essence, otherwise it is impossible to find its solution;
It is not always possible to satisfy a need, and in this case only the solution of some part of it remains.
In any case, when solving a problem of this type, it is necessary to answer the following questions. Do we understand what and what changes the process needs? Is the necessary knowledge available or does it need to be acquired? Do our solutions correspond to the habits, traditions and target orientations of potential consumers?
The most significant changes, one might say radical, occur on the basis of “new knowledge.” Innovations based on new knowledge (discoveries) are usually difficult to manage. This is due to a number of circumstances. First of all, there is usually a large gap between the emergence of new knowledge and its technological use, and secondly, a lot of time passes before the new technology materializes in a new product, process or service.
In this regard, innovations based on new knowledge require:
A thorough analysis of all necessary factors;
a clear understanding of the goal being pursued, i.e. a clear strategic orientation is required;
organization of entrepreneurial management, since it requires financial and managerial flexibility and market focus.
An innovation based on new knowledge must “ripe” and be accepted by society. Only in this case will it bring success.
What are fundamental principles innovation activity? According to P. Drucker, a clear line needs to be drawn between what should be done and what should not be done.
What do we have to do:
1. Purposeful systematic innovation activity requires continuous analysis of the capabilities of the above sources of innovation.
2. Innovation must correspond to the needs, desires, and habits of the people who will use it. The question you should ask yourself is: “What does this innovation need to convey in order for future consumers to want to use it?”
3. Innovation must be simple and have a precise purpose. The greatest praise for innovation is: “look how simple it is! How did I not think of this?”
4. Innovate more efficiently with little money, a small number of people, and limited risk. Otherwise, there is almost always not enough time and money for the numerous improvements that the innovation requires.
5. Effective innovation must be aimed at leadership in a limited market, in its niche. Otherwise, it will create a situation where your competitors will get ahead of you.
What not to do:
1. Don't be smart. Innovation will be used by ordinary people, and when it reaches a large scale, by incompetent people. Anything overly complex in design or operation is almost certainly doomed to failure.
2. Don't get scattered, don't try to do several things at once. Innovation requires concentrated energy. It is necessary that the people working on it understand each other well.
3. Innovate to meet current needs. If an innovation does not find immediate application, it will remain just an idea.
Innovation is a job that requires knowledge, ingenuity, and talent. It has been noted that innovators mainly work in only one area. For example, Edison focused his efforts only on electricity. Successful innovation requires intense, focused work. If you are not ready for it, neither knowledge nor talent will help.
To succeed, you need to use your strengths, people must take innovation seriously.
Finally, innovation means changes in the economy, industry, society, in the behavior of buyers, producers, and workers. Therefore, it must always focus on the market and be guided by its needs.
For an enterprise to carry out innovative activities, it must have a structure and mindset that would contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of entrepreneurship and the perception of the new as an opportunity. It is necessary to take into account a number of important points.
The basic organizing principle for innovation is to create a team of the best workers freed from their current jobs.
Experience shows that all attempts to transform an existing division into a carrier of an innovative project end in failure. Moreover, this conclusion applies to both large and small businesses. The fact is that maintaining production in working order is already a big task for the people involved in this. Therefore, they have practically no time left to create something new. Existing divisions, no matter in what area they operate, are generally only capable of expanding and modernizing production.
Entrepreneurial and innovative activities do not necessarily have to be carried out on an ongoing basis, especially in small enterprises, where such a setup is often impossible. However, it is necessary to appoint an employee personally responsible for the success of innovation. He must be responsible for the timely identification and replacement of obsolete products, equipment, technology, for a comprehensive analysis of production and economic activities (x-ray of the business), for the development of innovative activities. The employee responsible for innovation activities must be a person of sufficient authority in the enterprise.
It is necessary to protect the innovation department from unbearable loads. Investments in the development of innovations should not be included in regularly conducted analysis of the return on investment until the new products or services are established in the market. Otherwise, the matter will be ruined.
The profit from the implementation of an innovative project differs significantly from the profit received for the release of well-functioning products. Over a long period of time, innovative endeavors may produce neither profit nor growth, but only consume resources. Then the innovation must grow rapidly over a long period of time and return the funds invested in its development by at least 5-10 times, otherwise it can be considered a failure. Innovation starts small, but its results must be large-scale.
The enterprise should be managed in such a way that it creates an atmosphere where the new is perceived not as a threat, but as an opportunity. Resistance to change is rooted in fear of the unknown. Every employee must realize that innovation is the best remedy preserve and strengthen your enterprise. Moreover, it is necessary to understand that innovation is a guarantee of the employment and well-being of every employee. Organizing innovative activities based on these principles will allow the enterprise to move forward and achieve success.
Innovative activities can be carried out both within enterprises by specially created divisions (the so-called internal ventures) and by independent venture (risk) firms.
Internal ventures are small units organized to develop and produce new types of high-tech products and endowed with significant autonomy within the enterprise. The selection and financing of proposals coming from enterprise employees or independent inventors is carried out by specialized services. If the project is approved, the author of the idea heads the internal venture. This division operates with minimal administrative and economic intervention from the management of the enterprise.
Within a specified period, the internal venture must develop the innovation and prepare a new product or product for launch into mass production. As a rule, this is the production of a product that is non-traditional for a given company.
In the Russian Federation, internal ventures have been created at a number of large industrial enterprises, primarily in the military-industrial complex (MIC).
A venture capital firm is a small business that specializes in the research and development of innovative ideas that involve significant risk. To develop a promising idea, venture capital from large firms interested in innovation is attracted. A large company is usually reluctant to undertake its own development of an innovative idea with significant risk. The consequences of a possible failure are much more severe for it than for a small company. Therefore, the main direction of participation of a large company in research of a probable nature related to the development of innovative ideas becomes the implementation of risky financing of small innovating firms specializing in such developments.
Small firms are characterized by ease of management, wide scope for personal initiative, the ability to implement a flexible scientific and technological policy, and the active involvement of inventors in their activities. This determines the high efficiency of venture firms. Many of them make a significant contribution to innovative progress, the development of new products, and advanced technologies.
The effectiveness of small firms in the innovation process is evidenced by the following data: according to the US National Science Foundation, for every dollar invested in R&D, firms with up to 100 people carried out four times more innovations than firms with 100-1000 employees, and 24 times more than companies employing over 1000 people. Their rate of innovation is one third higher than that of large ones; in addition, small firms take an average of 2.22 years to enter the market with their innovations, while large ones take 3.05 years.
The participation of large firms in risk financing compared to traditional forms of R&D is due not only to increased returns, but also to their direct economic interest. The fact is that independent small firms enjoy tax and other benefits and receive direct financial support under government programs to stimulate scientific and technological progress. As a result, venture financing is currently actively developing in many countries. Venture capital forms are also developing to a certain extent in Russia.
Structure of an innovative enterprise
The structure of an innovative organization is a combination of organizational and production structures. The production structure of an organization is a set of main, auxiliary and service divisions of the organization that ensure the processing of the “input” of the system into its “output” - a finished product, innovation, etc.Organizational structure is a set of departments and services involved in building and coordinating the functioning of an innovation management system, developing and implementing management decisions for the implementation of a business plan and innovation project.
The nature of the construction of divisions and their number are determined by such forms of organization of production as specialization, concentration, cooperation, and combination. Depending on the form of specialization, the production divisions of an enterprise are organized according to technological (performing a separate operation or type of work), subject (manufacturing a separate type of product or its component) and mixed (subject-technological) principle.
The main factors determining the type, complexity and hierarchy (number of management levels) of the organizational structure of an enterprise are:
Scale of production and sales volume;
range of products;
complexity and level of product unification;
level of specialization, concentration, combination and cooperation of production;
the degree of development of the region's infrastructure;
international integration of an enterprise (firm, organization), etc.
The structure of the executive office, depending on the factors considered, can be linear, functional, linear-functional, matrix (staff), brigade, divisional, or problem-targeted.
Each of the listed types of structures has its own disadvantages and advantages. To select (design) a specific structure for a specific enterprise (organization), it is necessary to perform an in-depth analysis of the factors influencing the structure, which were discussed at the beginning of this issue.
We consider the following factors for the further development of the enterprise structure:
Development of specialization and cooperation of production;
control automation;
application of a set of scientific approaches to the design of the structure and to the functioning of the management system;
compliance with the principles of rational organization of production processes (proportionality, straightness, etc.);
transfer of existing management structures to a problem-target structure.
Basic principles of forming a problem-target structure of an enterprise:
Target approach, i.e. formation of a structure based on a tree of enterprise goals;
complexity in determining the number of deputy heads of the enterprise (1st level of the goal tree);
problem orientation, i.e. the formation of units to solve a specific problem or perform specific functions throughout the enterprise (2nd level of the goal tree);
focus on specific products or markets when constructing the structures of divisions for individual products or markets, the formation of a financial plan for the enterprise (at the 3rd level of the goal tree);
lack of special units for mandatory horizontal coordination of the implementation of the tree of enterprise goals;
ensuring mobility and adaptability of the structure to changes;
7) ensuring coordination of problem solving to achieve competitiveness of goods (horizontally) by marketers for specific goods.
Thus, the structure is determined by: the number and depth of principles and requirements for formation observed; goal tree structure; content of regulations on departments and job descriptions.
Types of innovative enterprises
Innovative organizations are organizations whose main directions are research activities, activities for the creation and sale of products on the innovative market.Two groups of such organizations can be distinguished:
1) directly involved in the development and creation of the product;
2) ensuring the implementation of innovative activities.
The first group includes innovative organizations operating in the market:
Research organizations;
- design and technology organizations and special design bureaus that carry out developments and projects that are the embodiment of the results of research institutes, conduct experiments, and carry out product certification issues;
- firms, enterprises, concerns, corporations for which innovation is not their main activity.
In the first group, four main sectors can be distinguished, which have historically formed in the domestic structure of the economy. They have development features and their own advantages in certain areas of innovation.
The second group consists of innovation market infrastructure organizations. The development of the necessary infrastructure related to ensuring the dissemination of knowledge and information exchange is one of the main tasks in the field of innovation. It is characterized by the presence of infrastructure organizations (venture firms, profit centers, engineering firms, engineering centers, leasing firms that provide various engineering, consulting, marketing services and contribute to the dissemination of knowledge), as well as the level of use of modern information technologies.
Intermediaries operating in the Russian innovation market can be divided into two categories: consulting firms and funds. The former specialize in providing consulting services on issues of intellectual property protection and marketing, the latter - in finding a customer-investor. However, foundations do not necessarily have or manage financial resources.
The main feature of intermediary companies and organizations in the field of intellectual property and technology transfer in Russia is the provision of only consulting services. They do not bear the costs and responsibilities of managing intellectual property. This focus of the activities of intermediaries, in addition to the high risks of investments and their lack of funds to pay for examination and patenting, may be associated with aversion to the transfer of intellectual property rights to an intermediary, as well as with the qualifications and experience of specialists working in this area of business. All this sharply reduces the efficiency of the technology commercialization process.
The formation of modern innovative structures in Russia began in the country; more than 50 technology parks were created, of which over 90% belonged to the university sector. By the beginning of the third millennium, according to CISN, in Russia there were 60 scientific centers and 38 scientific and technological parks based in the university sector.
These structures have some similarities with the structures operating in the Soviet economy - research and production associations and research and production complexes. But to a greater extent, territorial interuniversity complexes can be considered harbingers of modern innovative structures. They contributed to the solution of complex scientific and technical problems and determined intersectoral interaction. The fundamental difference between modern innovation structures is that they are formed on a voluntary basis and require a more flexible management system.
Currently, educational, scientific and innovative complexes (UNIC) are promising for organizing innovative activities, which not only ensure the process of creating and selling new products and services, but also train innovative personnel. UNIK in St. Petersburg and Saratov can be cited as successful examples of the functioning of such structures.
These complexes are designed to solve the following problems:
1) determination of guidelines and goals for the development of enterprises in accordance with the prospects of science and problems facing the region or individual consumers;
2) organization and selection of investment projects;
3) the formation of an infrastructure that ensures the accumulation of new knowledge and information, the transformation of existing knowledge;
4) maintaining the knowledge system - expanding and deepening the existing knowledge base in accordance with the goals;
5) assessment of innovative activities and regular audits of enterprises in order to identify problems and development prospects.
Currently, a new type of organization has emerged - innovation-marketing, where completely new relationships are being formed both within it and in its relationship with the external environment. These relationships are based on the principles of openness, creativity, and development of intellectual capital. This innovative marketing concept corresponds to the law of increasing needs and involves improving consumption and improving the quality of life.
Currently, the prospects for the development of innovative organizations are associated with the use of network forms of interaction, which involve the integration of the resource potential of several participants in order to create and promote competitive innovative products and conquer new markets.
Forms of innovative enterprises
Innovative activity of one or another direction and degree of novelty in one or another volume is carried out in all spheres of society and sectors of the national economy, within enterprises and institutions of various types, as well as a large number individual citizens acting as individuals, employees of various types of enterprises, as well as innovators, inventors, authors and co-authors of intellectual products and innovations.However, the predominant share of innovations is created within the framework of individual entrepreneurs, independent or part of larger enterprises and associations, working primarily in the field of science, as well as in various sectors of the national economy. IP creates intellectual products and innovations, which ensures scientific, technical, social and economic progress in society.
The organizational form of innovation implementation should be understood as a complex of enterprises, a separate enterprise or their divisions, characterized by a certain hierarchical organizational structure and a management mechanism corresponding to the specifics of innovative processes, providing justification for the need for innovation, identifying the main ideas for their creation, defining and using technology and organizing innovative processes for practical purposes. implementation of innovations. The organizational forms of individual entrepreneurs working in the field of science and ensuring the implementation of a complex or individual stages of creating innovations include its various divisions according to their target functions.
In the practice of developing science and technology and their connection with the production and implementation of innovations, various organizational forms of enterprises are used, differing:
The specifics of the innovations being created (new equipment, new technologies, new materials, economic and organizational solutions, etc.);
breadth of innovation process coverage ( design work, pilot production, development, implementation);
level of management (international, republican, industry, regional, associations of enterprises, enterprises and divisions);
territorial location of divisions (in different geographical and economic regions or in the same area);
the form of hierarchical connections between enterprise divisions (vertical, horizontal, mixed);
the form of ownership prevailing in the enterprise (state, municipal, joint-stock, mixed, private).
In all highly developed countries, small research businesses use such organizational forms as spin-offs (offspring firms), investment funds and venture capital firms (risky capital firms).
“Spin-off” firms (offspring firms that are separated from universities, independent institutes, government research centers and special laboratories of large industrial corporations) are small innovative firms organized for the purpose of commercial implementation of scientific and technical achievements obtained during implementation of large non-civilian projects (military developments, space programs etc.).
The experience of the functioning of “spin-off” companies is especially important for us, since the multibillion-dollar expenditures of the military-industrial and space complexes of Russia practically did not give anything to the civilian industry, and the scientific and technical achievements obtained turn out to be separated from potential consumers of steppe secrecy. In the context of conversion, it is impossible to do without creating a special mechanism for “utilization” of military and space achievements, where an important role belongs to small organizational forms of the “spin-off” type.
Another organizational form of innovation implementation directly related to small research businesses is investment funds. These funds differ from the innovative banks that have appeared in our country in that most often their activities are not commercial, but philanthropic in nature, with the goal of financial support for both small innovative firms and individual individual inventors. The foundation emphasizes its non-profit orientation by preferring developments that have high risk failure.
The American practice of organizing exploratory research has given rise to a unique form of entrepreneurship - risky (venture) business.
The venture business is represented by independent small firms specializing in research, development, and production of new products. They are created by research scientists, engineers, and innovators. Venture capital firms operate at the stages of growth and saturation of inventive activity and the still existing, but already declining activity of scientific research.
Venture capital firms may be subsidiaries of larger firms.
Venture enterprises can be of two types:
Actually a risky business;
- internal risk projects of large corporations.
In turn, risky business is represented by two main types of business entities:
Independent small innovative firms;
- financial institutions providing them with capital.
Small innovative firms are founded by scientists, engineers, and inventors who strive to implement the latest achievements of science and technology with the expectation of material gain. The initial capital of such companies can be the personal savings of the founder, but they are usually not enough to implement existing ideas. In such situations, you have to contact one or more specialized financial companies that are ready to provide risk capital.
The specificity of risk entrepreneurship lies primarily in the fact that funds are provided on an irrevocable, interest-free basis; the usual collateral for lending is not required. The resources transferred to the disposal of the venture firm are not subject to withdrawal during the entire term of the agreement. Essentially, the financial institution becomes a co-owner of the innovating company, and the funds provided become a contribution to the authorized capital of the enterprise, part of the latter’s own funds.
Internal ventures. They are small units organized to develop and produce new types of high-tech products and endowed with significant autonomy within large corporations. Within a specified period, the internal venture must develop the innovation and prepare a new product or product for launch into mass production. As a rule, this is the production of a product that is non-traditional for a given company.
Widespread forms of association of individual entrepreneurs to solve complex problems of survival and development in market conditions are: scientific unions and funds, including investment ones; associations and consortia; technology parks (scientific, innovation, environmental, conversion, technology villages and business parks); incubators that unite “newborn” scientific, engineering and economic teams of creative young professionals in innovative business centers and incubators.
An incubator is a structure specializing in creating favorable conditions for the emergence and effective operation of small innovative (venture) firms that implement original scientific and technical ideas.
This is achieved by providing small innovative firms with material (primarily scientific equipment and premises), information, consulting and other necessary services.
The following types of work carried out in the incubator can be identified:
Examination of innovative projects;
searching for an investor and, if necessary, providing guarantees;
provision of premises, equipment, and pilot production on preferential terms;
provision of legal, advertising, information, consulting and other services on preferential terms.
The incubator does not require budgetary expenses: self-sufficiency is ensured through its participation in one form or another in the future profits of innovative firms.
The development of innovative business incubators as the basis and core of future technology parks and technopolises seems to be the optimal tactical measure.
A technology park is a compactly located complex, which in general can include scientific institutions, universities and industrial enterprises, as well as information and exhibition complexes, service centers and involves the creation of comfortable living conditions.
The functioning of the technology park is based on the commercialization of scientific and technical activities and accelerating the promotion of innovations in the field of material production.
In large regions of science and progressive technologies, technology parks, innovation incubators, State Scientific Centers, various joint-stock companies, associations, scientific enterprises and centers, institutions of the Russian Academy of Sciences and other academies, universities and higher education institutions are united into regional research and production complexes (RPCs) - technopolises.
A technopolis is understood as a complex of fundamental and applied scientific institutions, universities, design and implementation organizations, as well as a number of industrial enterprises focused on innovation, concentrated within one region.
Technopolis is a structure similar to a technopark, but includes small cities ( settlements), so-called “science cities”, the development of which would be purposefully oriented towards the scientific and scientific-production complexes located in them.
Innovation process at the enterprise
Achievements of scientific and technological progress are distributed in production in the form of innovations.The concept of “innovation” (in Russian - “innovation”) comes from the English word innovation, which translated from English means “introduction of innovations” (innovations).
Innovation means new order, new method, new product or technology, new phenomenon.
The process of using an innovation associated with its receipt, reproduction and implementation in the material sphere of society is an innovation process. Innovation processes originate in certain branches of science and culminate in the sphere of production, causing progressive, qualitatively new changes in it.
Innovation can relate both to technology and technology, and to forms of organization of production and management. All of them are closely interconnected and are qualitative steps in the development of productive forces, increasing production efficiency.
Taking into account the subject of innovation, the following types are distinguished:
Technical and technological innovations manifest themselves in the form of new products, technologies for their production, and means of production. They are the basis of technological progress and technical re-equipment of production;
- organizational innovations are the processes of mastering new forms and methods of organizing and regulating production and labor, as well as innovations that involve changes in the ratio of spheres of influence (both vertically and horizontally) of structural units, social groups or individuals;
- management innovations - a targeted change in the composition of functions, organizational structures, technology and organization of the management process, methods of operation of the management apparatus, aimed at replacing elements of the management system (or the entire system as a whole) in order to speed up, facilitate or improve the solution of the tasks assigned to the enterprise;
- economic innovations at an enterprise can be defined as positive changes in its financial, payment, accounting areas of activity, as well as in the areas of planning, pricing, motivation and remuneration and performance evaluation;
- social innovations manifest themselves in the form of enhancing the human factor through the development and implementation of a system for improving personnel policy; systems of professional training and improvement of workers; systems of social and professional adaptation of newly hired persons; systems of remuneration and evaluation of labor results. This also includes improving the social and living conditions of workers, occupational safety and health conditions, cultural activities, and organization of free time;
- legal innovations are new and amended laws and regulations that define and regulate all types of enterprise activities;
- environmental innovations - changes in technology, organizational structure and management of an enterprise that improve or prevent its negative impact on the environment.
Technical development of an enterprise is the process of forming and improving the technical and technological base of an enterprise, focused on the final results of its economic activities through technical and technological innovations.
The goals of technical and technological innovation are:
Reducing the design and technological complexity of manufactured products due to design innovations;
- reducing the material consumption of products through the use of new materials;
- comprehensive mechanization and automation of technological processes;
- use of robotics, manipulators and flexible automated systems;
- reducing the technological labor intensity of products and manual labor costs by increasing the technical level and quality of technological equipment, tools, devices, scientific organization of labor;
- comprehensive automation and regulation of production management processes based on electronics and computer technology, etc.
The development of the technical and technological base is carried out through equipment modernization, technical re-equipment, reconstruction and expansion, and new construction.
The choice of a specific direction of technical development of an enterprise is carried out on the basis of the results of diagnostic analysis and assessment of the technical and organizational level of production.
The main indicators of this assessment:
The degree of coverage of workers with mechanized and automated labor;
- technical equipment of labor (capital-labor ratio and energy-labor ratio);
- the share of new technologies in the volume or labor intensity of products;
- average age of the technological processes used;
- coefficient of use of raw materials and materials (output of finished products from a unit of raw materials);
- power (performance) of equipment;
- the share of advanced equipment in its total fleet;
- average service life of the equipment;
- coefficient of physical wear and tear of equipment;
- the share of technically and economically obsolete equipment in its total number;
- coefficient of technological equipment of production (the number of devices, equipment and tools used per one workplace in the main production);
- degree of recycling of production waste, etc.
Managing the technical development of an enterprise should include: setting goals and identifying their priorities; selection of directions for technical development; assessing the effectiveness of possible solutions; drawing up a technical development program; adjusting the plan and monitoring the implementation of measures provided for by the program.
Organizational progress is expressed in the improvement of existing and application of new methods and forms of organizing production and labor, elements of the economic mechanism.
To carry out the production process, it is necessary to provide it with material and technical support and appropriate organization - the correct and effective combination of living labor (workers) with the material elements of production (tools and objects of labor).
Labor organization is a system of measures aimed at the most rational use of labor in production.
The connection of participants in the labor process is ensured by various forms of division and cooperation of labor, the organization of maintenance of workplaces, and the establishment of rational work and rest regimes.
The main directions of organizational progress are:
1) improving the organization of production (strengthening the continuity and flexibility of production, consistency in the duration and productivity of all interconnected production units, rationalizing the organization of flow and use of means of production, etc.);
2) improvement of labor organization (implementation of a set of measures based on the achievements of science and advanced experience, which make it possible to best combine equipment and people in the production process, use material and labor resources more efficiently, increase labor productivity, improve working conditions, make it more efficient meaningful and attractive);
3) rationalization of the elements of the economic mechanism (management systems, planning and forecasting, financing, material incentives, logistics, scientific and technical support for production), the transition of the enterprise to market economic relations with the state and other counterparties.
The main modern trends in organizational progress are also: accelerating the pace of development of individual social forms of organizing production (deconcentration, cooperation, conversion, diversification), deepening labor motivation, developing a collective form of organization and remuneration.
The main general indicator of the economic efficiency of technical and technological innovations is the indicator of economic effect. It reflects particular performance indicators: labor productivity, capital productivity, material and energy intensity, indicators of the technical level of production, product quality, etc.
The indicator of economic effect from the implementation of innovations is defined as the excess of the valuation of the results over the valuation of the total expenditure of resources for the entire period of implementation of the activities.
When calculating the economic effect, the national economic approach must first be observed, i.e. the results should be taken into account not only at the place of application of technical and technological innovations, but also in related industries with the position of their influence on the final indicators of the country's economic development.
Then the on-farm (commercial) economic effect is calculated at individual stages of the reproduction cycle: research and development (R&D), development, production and use of the results of innovations. It allows you to evaluate the effectiveness of certain innovations in individual research organizations, manufacturing enterprises and consumer enterprises.
Innovative technologies at the enterprise
For any modern enterprise operating in conditions of uncertainty and risk (and risk is an integral attribute of economic activity), there is a problem of survival and ensuring continuity of development. Different enterprises solve it in different ways, depending on the prevailing conditions and circumstances, but the basis for solving the problem is the creation and implementation of competitive advantages. For enterprises operating in high-tech and competitive industries, the problem of creating new sources of competitive advantage in a changing external environment is constantly relevant, i.e. the problem of maintaining and increasing competitiveness.In recent decades, a new analytical direction has emerged in the field of strategic management - the resource approach, the founder of which can be considered E. Penrose, who published the book “The Theory of Firm Growth”, in which a modern corporate enterprise is presented as an organization that administers a set of human and physical resources. The people and teams of people who provide services to a firm are constantly trained in how to make the most efficient use of the firm's productive resources, thereby providing the firm with production capabilities that are not available to any other firm operating in the same industry that has not accumulated such experience. E. Penrose viewed technology and industrial research and development as one of the sources of new opportunities for product diversification.
To achieve sustainable competitive advantage, resources must meet the following four criteria:
Create values in the client’s system;
be original compared to competitors;
be difficult to imitate;
be difficult to replace.
The last two criteria are especially important for the formation of competitive advantages.
The resource-based approach links the sustainability of competitive advantages with the difficulty of imitation of knowledge. The imitation barriers are personnel qualifications, unique knowledge, special information, intellectual property (patents, trademarks), the degree of preparedness of the consumer and manufacturer, and communication channels. The bulk of these barriers are directly or indirectly related to knowledge and its development.
In addition, the sustainability of an enterprise's competitive advantages is explained by the presence of intangible assets. Such assets are a real source of competitiveness and a key factor in the enterprise’s adaptation to external conditions for three reasons: difficulties of accumulation; ability to be used repeatedly and in parallel; the ability to act simultaneously as costs and results of economic activity. Intangible assets contain components that make them difficult to imitate or transfer.
Imitation barriers and intangible assets are very similar because essential component both are knowledge. Licenses and patents are based, for example, on the knowledge of the developer, databases can be classified as encoded knowledge, and personal and organizational networks are built and function primarily through the transfer of implicit knowledge.
If knowledge is considered as an original, difficult-to-imitate and difficult-to-replace resource, then its management moves to a central place in the competitive struggle. Since technologies represent information, a specific type of knowledge, their role in competition is very great.
Innovative technologies play a leading role in improving the production process, updating the range and range of products, reducing production costs, introducing new progressive management principles, i.e. they create the main competitive advantages. As M. Porter noted, “ technological changes are increasingly seen as having value in their own right, and any technological innovation a firm adopts is seen as a positive.”
Innovative technology can influence the competitive position of enterprises and industries in several directions:
Create barriers to the entry of new enterprises into the market, causing economies of scale and changing, for example, requirements for the amount of initial capital;
change contractual relationships with customers by differentiating products and services;
create opportunities for equipment replacement;
change the cost structure and framework of traditionally established industries.
When developing a strategy, it is important for an enterprise to focus on “those technologies that can have the most sustainable impact” and meet the following four requirements:
1. Technology change itself reduces costs or creates differentiation opportunities, and the firm has sustainable technological leadership.
2. A change in technology causes a shift in the cost structure in favor of the firm or gives it the opportunity to produce unique products.
3. The transition to new technologies causes, in addition to the benefits from the use of the technologies themselves, an innovative additional effect.
4. Changes in technology fundamentally change the structure of the industry.
Since correctly selected technologies are the basis for successful innovation and a factor in long-term competitiveness, technological solutions should be included in the practice of developing strategic management decisions.
In this aspect, technology can be understood as a set of strategic resources used by an enterprise in current and future innovation activities. An enterprise's actions with respect to its technological resources can thus have a significant impact on its ability to innovate, that is, its ability to create long-term competitive advantage in a dynamic external environment.
A company with a clear understanding of the actual status and potential of a technology can correctly define a technology strategy. At the same time, the risks associated with the application of the chosen strategy (possible shortage of raw materials, unfavorable development of energy prices, tightening of environmental requirements) are also assessed. The company must also know how the new technology is compatible with current and future production in organizational and personnel plans. There is a need for a systematic analysis of technological opportunities and their implementation through effective technology management.
An enterprise that develops, acquires and uses modern technologies, faces three main problems.
To function successfully, it needs:
Quickly master new technologies;
use them effectively to produce goods and provide services in accordance with market needs;
constantly optimize the use of technology, material and labor resources.
Enterprise management needs to answer the following questions:
1. Which technology should be chosen? The result should be the choice of technology that best suits the needs of the enterprise. The decision may be aimed at implementing a predetermined production function or at creating capabilities. It should be noted that changing decisions related to the choice of technology is usually extremely painful for an enterprise, but decisions of this kind must be made quickly enough;
2. create or buy technology? The solution to this problem is to choose a method for acquiring technology. When deciding to purchase technology from an external source, an enterprise has another question: from whom to buy the technology? Although technological projects are largely unique, nevertheless, in a developed market, several proposals acceptable to the buyer may arise, then the reputation of the supplier and other non-price competitive conditions (deadlines, support, etc.) are important;
3. keep or sell technology? The solution to this problem determines the type of technology management;
4. What organizational structures are needed to implement technological solutions? Typically, technology decisions are made in a decentralized manner across the enterprise. They are involved in solving the same problem different faces at different hierarchical levels, with different information bases. Structural transformations should contribute to the development of an integrated technological strategy for the enterprise.
The development, mastery and use of new technologies in an enterprise, as a rule, requires significant investments. These investments are characterized by a long-term nature and high uncertainty regarding future returns. Because a business must balance long-term competitiveness with current liquidity, a portfolio approach is appropriate when investing in new technologies. This means that a portfolio of real investment projects for the creation or acquisition of new technologies must be formed.
Portfolio formation and management involves making the following general decisions:
Determining the overall goal of the portfolio based on the needs of the portfolio owner;
determining the acceptable degree of risk taken when forming a portfolio (whether the investments will be aggressive or conservative);
determining the acceptable rate of return expected to be received for investing in technology;
selection of certain areas of investment. This is an ongoing process because as new opportunities arise, less attractive projects must be removed from the portfolio and replaced with more attractive ones.
The main problems associated with the formation and management of a project portfolio in most organizations include:
An excessive number of simultaneously carried out projects, which often duplicate each other (especially in large organizations with decentralized management structures);
incorrect choice of projects, as a result of which projects are implemented that have no value for the organization and do not strengthen its competitiveness;
lack of linkage of ongoing projects with the strategic goals of the organization;
imbalance in the composition of the project portfolio, expressed in:
a) an excessive number of projects related to production technological processes, with insufficient projects affecting the market aspects of the organization’s activities;
b) an excessive number of projects aimed at developing new products, with a lack of research projects;
c) too many projects with short-term goals, with a small number of projects aimed at the long term;
d) inconsistency of the project portfolio with the most important assets of the organization;
e) its inconsistency with the organization’s strategic resources;
f) insufficient consideration of existing basic opportunities for generating income, risks, etc.
Procedures for managing a portfolio of technological investment projects at an enterprise must ensure the implementation of the following functions:
1. Establishing a viable composition of portfolios in a project that can achieve the organization's goals.
2. Ensuring portfolio balance, i.e. achieving a balance between short-term and long-term projects, between project risks and their profitability, etc.
3. Monitoring the planning and implementation processes of projects selected for the portfolio.
4. Analysis of the effectiveness of the project portfolio and search for ways to improve it.
5. Comparison of the capabilities of new projects among themselves and in relation to projects already included in the portfolio, taking into account the organization’s resources in terms of implementing additional projects.
6. Providing information and recommendations to managers at all levels for their management decisions.
Modern enterprise competition is carried out in conditions of increasing uncertainty, shorter life cycles of products and services, distributed sources of knowledge throughout the world, characteristic of the modern global economy. To remain competitive, most enterprises are forced to combine internal R&D with the acquisition of technology from external sources. Here there is a field for cooperation between large companies and small innovative enterprises. Small businesses can become both sources of new technological solutions, acting as technology suppliers, and develop and bring to market innovative projects of a large company, while financing of such projects can be carried out on the principles of corporate venture investment.
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