Any activity is a purposeful activity that realizes the needs of the subject. As a socio-historical category, activity is a specific human form of active relationship to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation.
Activity includes the goal, means, result and the process of activity itself. Its essential characteristic is awareness. Activity can be reproductive and productive. A holistic understanding of activity lies in its objectivity. A.N. Leontyev considers objective activity as a system included in the structure of relations of society, which has a structure, its own internal transitions and transformations, its own development. The object of activity, through its stimulating and directing function, becomes its motive.
Political activity is constantly changing and transforming, like any other human activity. It has all the characteristics of activity as a category. The main, or constitutive, characteristic of activity is its objectivity, which lies in the fact that it is subject to (or likened to) the properties, phenomena and relationships of the objective world independent of it. Objectivity acts as a universal plasticity of activity, as its ability to reflect the objective properties of objects among which the subject acts. Objectivity political activity lies in the transformations that are carried out through it in the state and society. The subjectivity of political activity is influenced by the specific historical conditions in which it is carried out. Subject matter is reflected in views on political activity, in the works of scientists, in practical political activity.
Activity acts as a process in which mutual transitions between subject and object take place.
There is a distinction between an object of activity and a subject of activity. The key difference in this is that the subject is, first of all, a carrier of activity, a source of transformation, a goal-setting being (individual or group). Whereas an object is a fragment of reality towards which the activity of a subject interconnected with it is directed. This applies, of course, to political activity. Most often, both the object and the subject of political activity are people, that is, participants in political activity. In addition, the objects of political activity can be social phenomena, processes, situations, facts. In political activity, the object-subject relationship represents an organic unity: after all, a person is the main subject and object of politics; social groups, organizations, movements also act simultaneously as objects of political activity and as its subjects. At the same time, the relationship between subject and object in politics and political activity in different periods and from different points of view is different.
Politics is inseparable from human society, its past, present and future. The historical development of social and legal thought, the experience of many generations of thinkers engaged in the study of politics and political activity, is concentrated in the history of political and legal doctrines. This legacy has a significant impact on the evolution of political knowledge and practical experience of political activity. The genesis of the phenomenon of "politics", the principles of developing a methodology for political activity that have developed in different stages historical development of society, are the initial theoretical and methodological basis for the political concepts of domestic and foreign scientists.
In ancient social thought, politics, “the most important of all sciences and arts,” was established as “the art of managing people.” This is evidenced by the etymology of the word. The political wisdom of the ancients said that happy life people must be provided with fair government. Mastering the art of politics is available to “exceptional” people. State administration (political activity) is the lot of the chosen ones, capable of surpassing their citizens in virtues, intelligence, and moral qualities. In Plato's Dialogues, politics is seen as the ideology of the “elect”, to whom “might gives right,” which is “the interest of the stronger party.”
The thesis that in the struggle for political (state) power any means are acceptable is one of the most ancient and widespread. Machiavelli, analyzing the political mores of his time, came to the conclusion that sovereigns are guided in public affairs not by moral standards, but by considerations of political expediency. Politics “disregards moral rules and considers every means permissible” if it leads to the desired goal. It is no coincidence that Machiavelli writes about the need for “disguise for princes,” who “must possess the great art of pretense and fooling.”
The study of modern foreign sources indicates different understanding essence of political activity, since the basis scientific research There are different methodological principles based on different understandings of the political phenomenon. Using M. Weber's methodology, some researchers reduce the entire political system to the state. Others, according to the theory of T. Parsons, view it as a set of individuals acting in certain roles, or as a set of individuals and institutions acting together to find a solution to a problem. American political scientist G. Lasswell believes that the main thing in politics is the distribution of values (power, education, wealth) among people; it is important to determine who gets what, when and how.
There is an opinion that politics is complex mechanism, which includes a lot of other phenomena and processes. The main components of politics are political relations and political activity. At the same time, political relations form the body of politics and are realized through political activity. Political relations, in turn, stem from public relations and cover all relationships regarding power, dominance and submission.
Some Russian political scientists consider political activity as derivative in relation to economic activity, but retaining significant independence and prefer to consider political issues primarily through the prism of problems of formation, coordination and presentation of public interests.
Political activity, as a historically established type of social activity, is not a frozen entity. It is subject to contradictory changes. The subject of political activity is the problems of people's life, possession of state (political) power and participation in its implementation, determination of prospects and directions of the social movement, management of socio-political, socio-economic processes of society.
The modern political science definition brings together the obvious components and functions of political activity: “Political activity is specific professional and non-professional (social) activity in various areas state and society. The social basis of this activity is the interests and needs of various social groups and layers, national formations, and its core is the problem of power, relationships regarding power: either its retention and preservation, or its reform and radical transformation, which can be carried out in various ways. Political activity can have a progressive impact on society, contribute to the preservation of civil peace and harmony, but it can also destabilize the situation, cause confrontation and hostility."
The study of the essence of political activity allows us to conclude that politics is a multidimensional phenomenon, manifested in two constantly interacting dimensions: objective and subjective. When considering politics as an activity, there is every reason to recognize it as both the science and the art of managing (the state, people), building relationships, realizing interests, as well as gaining, retaining, using political power and pursuing the line of conduct of the subject of politics. In this case, politics acts for the subject of activity as a “calling and profession.”
Since its inception, politics, as “the art of managing people,” has been perceived by some as a tool for affirming justice, and by others as denying it. In the first attempts to scientifically understand the phenomenon of politics, the egoistic nature of political behavior is recorded. Despite some differences in views, early thinkers had in common an interpretation of the biological nature of politics, the roots of which are in the egoistic essence of man. References to the irrationality of human nature as a factor in policy formation, and the position that the basis of political behavior is determined by biological nature individual, are also found in modern Western political science, the basis of which is the psychological concept of behaviorism.
An alternative to the biologization of politics has been and continues to be the dialectical-materialist approach, which reveals the social essence of politics.
In general, interpretations of the essence of politics that preceded the modern stage of the world social order were characterized, on the one hand, by an absolutization of the psychological approach, which led to the biologization of politics, the absence of certain methods in the study of the “social field” around power, influencing the subject of politics and determining the results his activities. On the other hand, revealing the essence of the political phenomenon only through the “social” led to an underestimation of the psychological aspect of politics, which significantly impoverished the possibilities of understanding political activity as a special type of human activity.
The golden mean, apparently, is a combination of psychological and social in politics. It is precisely this opportunity that social psychology gives us, or, as Diligensky clarifies, socio-political psychology. Diligensky, highlighting the socio-political branch in psychology, sets the task of collecting and systematizing the socio-psychological knowledge, the object of which is the relationship and interconnection of man and society. At the same time, the concept of “society” is interpreted as a set of diverse relationships between people within the boundaries of a certain national-state or civilizational-historical space. He emphasizes that none of the existing disciplines considers the macrosocial level of psychological relations and processes as a special sphere of people’s mental life, while work in this direction is being carried out with different sides, and their common goal has long been recognized by scientific thought. Generally speaking, this goal is “to understand the mental life of people at the same time as a product and a driving force in the functioning and development of society.”
In turn, the mental life of people, as a product and driving force of the functioning of society, can be called the political activity of the individual, since, firstly, here we mean only those mental processes that are associated with politics and arise only in connection with it. And, secondly, political activity (as one of the components of politics) is, on the one hand, a reaction to external conditions, input, situation - that is, a product; on the other hand, it itself creates these introductory, new conditions and thus becomes the driving force in the functioning of society, since it forces society to reckon with it.
When considering political activity, we mean all (any) activity in a certain limited territory, which in one way or another determines the development strategy of this territory, management, its internal and external relations. The above processes are influenced primarily by subjects economic activity, large social groups that include the majority of the population (this could be, for example, public sector employees; or professional groups such as miners, oil workers, military personnel; or migrants, certain national groups) - this depends on the specialization of the region or its other characteristics.
In political psychology, politics is considered as a multidimensional continuum in which one can distinguish a system, a process, a set of determinants, modeled political connections and relationships (political games), a system of values, an area of subjective self-realization of a person and an integrative socio-psychological phenomenon.
Politics within the framework of political psychology appears as a set of relations between large social groups (macrogroups): ethnic groups, nations, classes, classes, religious communities, parties, state entities etc. Accordingly, actions that practically embody formal or informal intergroup relations can be considered political. At the same time, the sphere of political activity includes a huge variety of social events - from individual leadership to government regulation life of society, public events, civil and international relations, conflicts, wars, etc.
Political activity is differentiated into theoretical and practical. Being relatively independent, they are interdependent. Political theory becomes effective and efficient when it is based on practical experience masses and coincides with their needs and interests. A distinctive feature of scientific knowledge that works with society is the description of current social processes or, as it is also called, the development of science determines the social order. This is logical, since it would be strange if scientists dealt with irrelevant issues. For example, in the 19th century, the attention of psychologists was attracted by mass spontaneous forms of political behavior (spontaneous riots, demonstrations, panic, crowd behavior), which was associated with the growing revolutionary movement in many countries. In the middle of the 20th century, intergroup and intragroup phenomena were studied - in historical terms, this corresponds with wars, including cold war, "Iron Curtain", etc. (the concepts of “We”, “They”, other socio-psychological phenomena). In the second half of the twentieth century, psychology began to study those factors that motivate a person’s inclusion in politics and participation in its various forms. The very fact of such a direction of activity already speaks volumes - it is connected with objective processes of historical and social development, is their reflection and emphasizes them. And this means that right now, more than ever, the “role of the individual in history”—the role of each individual—is growing.
Political activity, having a socio-psychological basis, cannot be carried out by an individual outside social groups, without interaction with other people, outside the context (the current social situation - socio-economic conditions, internal and foreign policy). Political activity, taking into account the development of technical and economic progress, primarily refers to the “person-to-person” system, since it is in the interaction of people that the strategic direction of political activity, its guidelines and methods of implementation (both social and purely technical) are born. Currently, the circle of subjects of political activity has greatly expanded. This is connected with socio-economic transformations, and with the socio-technological organization of life, and, at the same time, with changes in the legal and regulatory system of the state.
On the effectiveness of political activity, which, in essence, is an activity of transformation, development and strengthening state power, state and society, the quantitative and qualitative composition of people participating in political activities has a very great influence. Considering politics as an activity, the main argument is that people make politics, therefore, their actions are the main object of study. When studying politics based on the implementation of the activity approach, which was proposed by S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev and other domestic psychologists, a coherent system of activities of political subjects is built. Many authors note that “in a modern democratic society, not only professionals, but all capable citizens are included in the political process and are its integral part,” and further: “... the role of ordinary citizens in politics has increased immeasurably.”
Thus, politics is recognized as an integral part of human life and “the area of subjective self-realization of a person” (the idea was put forward by Aristotle).
May exist a large number of various tasks, forms, types, types and directions of political activity, as well as methods, methods, technologies and mechanisms for its implementation. Common to all of them will be the presence of subjects of political activity, interaction and relationship between them, determined certain relationships; the presence of an object and subject of political activity, its goals and objectives.
The processes taking place on the planet force us to constantly “clarify” the concept of politics and everything that corresponds to it. This is due to the dynamics of development of individual states where these definitions are created, and trends in global development as a whole. And now, of course, we can no longer say that the state is only “an apparatus for the oppression of one class by another,” etc. Currently, the interests of the individual, of each individual person, come to the fore. But this is already a consequence, since “any social change occurs only when it becomes possible to express the existing cultural attitudes in the existing categories of a market economy.” Changes are primarily reflected in the methods of social production and consumption, the principles of socio-technological organization and way of life, which have a great influence on political activity and political life in general.
Currently, the main trends in the relationship between sectors of social production are steadily bringing social organization closer to the type of post-industrial society. In a nutshell, this is a new principle of the socio-technological organization of life, displacing the industrial system, just as it itself once displaced the agricultural one. According to Daniel Bell, an outstanding American sociologist, founder of the concept of post-industrial society (which was banned for a long time in the Soviet Union due to its obvious inconsistency with the theory of scientific communism), post-industrial trends do not replace previous social forms as certain “stages” of social development. They often coexist, complicating society and the nature of its social structure.
Distinctive features of post-industrial society are activities related primarily to data processing, management and information. The key role is played by information and speed, the importance of information as a commodity is increasing. Reorganization of the economy and transition to new high-tech special industries with high added value. Post-industrial changes are associated with the codification of theoretical knowledge, which makes science a distinctive feature of this society. It is a way of life that increasingly comes down to “people interacting with each other.” Society is based on services. Moreover, new types of services are becoming widespread - humanitarian (education, healthcare, social services) and professional services (analysis and planning, design, programming, etc.). Obviously the role is growing human factor, a person as a person, individuality and subject of activity. The same thing happens in the political sphere.
According to the “Regional Public Center for Internet Technologies” (ROCIT, February 2001), at present, the development trends of the Russian economy are already in many ways comparable to the world ones. If earlier we were unique in many ways (the processes taking place in the country did not obey any global trends and patterns), then over the past three years the situation has rapidly changed to the opposite. Now we can talk about Russia as part of the world community not only in political life, but also in socio-economic development. Modern Russia is occupying an increasingly strong position in the world community, the standard of living of the population and consumer demand are increasing. Accordingly, all trends in global development apply to Russia.
The end of the twentieth century was marked by increased attention to the study of the interests of the individual, society and the state, which served as the basis for the formation of another important paradigm of social change - the concept of security, which has received recognition in many countries of the world, including Russia. The main emphasis in this paradigm is that the basis of desirable social change(and political activity) is considered to be a guaranteed protection of interests - of the individual, family, society and state. The interests of the individual, the interests of society, and the interests of the state have become the core of the National Security Concept Russian Federation, and their totality determined the strategy of Russia’s national interests in all spheres of life support and security. This, of course, is reflected in practical political activity, becomes its main priority and is reflected in normative legal acts. In general, more than a third of the Constitution of the Russian Federation is devoted to the rights and freedoms of man and citizen and ways of their implementation, protection of personal and private interests.
The growth of scientific and technological achievements and the accompanying increase in the speed of all processes increases the role of individuals in various fields life support: political, social, economic, environmental, military, technological, information, humanitarian, etc.
Thus, all historical process and the dynamics of scientific thought lead us to the fact that, simultaneously with the expansion and clarification of the concept of political activity, the definition of the subject of political activity needs clarification.
Subjects of political activity
In parallel with the consideration of the concept of politics and political activity, there is always a consideration of the subjects of political activity. Often, even if a specific material does not mention a “subject of political activity” as such, it is clear from the context and the very concept of politics (political activity) who the authors consider the subject. The above analysis scientific works and publications allows us to conclude that for the most part, authors by subjects of political activity (subjects of politics) mean people who are professionally involved in politics - these are politicians, heads of state and regional authorities, etc. From our point of view, more accurately, all of them can be called subjects of political power and management (which, of course, is included in the concept of “subject of political activity,” but specifies its scope).
In the works of various authors one can find the concepts of “political relations”, “political activity”, “politics”, which often have a synonymous meaning. And, as a result, the concepts of “subjects of political relations”, “subjects of politics”, or “subjects of political activity” are encountered. All of these definitions refer to some active individual who participates in the political process and, through his actions, influences the results of political activity. In contrast to the "subject", the inactive individual (or passive) - the one towards whom the activity is directed - is called an "object".
Subjects of political activity can be individual and collective.
Political leadership is a symbol of community and a model of political behavior of a group (groups), capable of realizing its (their) interests with the help of power. Leadership is a phenomenon of power, the ability of one person to force others to do something.
The main functions of political leadership include:
determination and formulation of the interests of social groups, goals of social and political activity, identification of ways and methods of realizing interests and achieving goals (program function);
integration of society, unification of the masses (integrative function);
finding and making optimal political decisions (managerial function);
social arbitration and patronage, protecting the masses from lawlessness, arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, maintaining order in society (protective function);
communication between the authorities and the masses, preventing the alienation of citizens from the political leadership (communicative function);
initiating renewal, generating optimism and social energy, mobilizing the masses to realize political goals (mobilization function);
legitimation of the political system (legitimation function).
politics social state society
The state is the central and basic element of the political organization of society. This is the governing body of a separate social structure, forms of ownership and the associated production structure. In conditions of the priority of universal human interests over class ones, the state can develop from a government body into a body for executing the legislative initiative of society, ensuring the uninterrupted functioning of its basic mechanisms.
The internal functions of the state are to ensure the functioning of society as an integral organism, maintaining the connections, dependencies, and subordination existing in it; primary satisfaction of the interests of politically and economically dominant social forces, external ones - protecting the inviolability of borders, the integrity of territory, sovereignty, promoting the development of cooperation and interaction with other countries.
Thus, the state, being the main subject of politics, normalizes the life of the entire society, creates a regime and political environment for the activities of individuals and social communities. The state is the political force that ensures the organization and systemic (economic, social, political) integrity of society.
The social essence of the state represents a certain form of human coexistence and in this it acts as the integrity of the interconnections and relations of power-legal structures and society, as a system of relationships between individuals and their associations. Basic social function democratic state is to ensure accounting, representation and implementation of the interests of all social groups of society.
Powerfully significant interests are the basis for the activities of political subjects
In the political sphere, the dominant motive, the basis of social activity and the activities of political subjects, becomes the satisfaction of politically conscious interest.
Interest (from Lat. - to have meaning) is the real reason for social actions, events, accomplishments behind immediate motives - motives, thoughts, ideas, etc. - individuals and social communities participating in these actions. Political interest is a person’s selective attitude towards any political phenomena, events, processes, or political activities, based on his ideological principles, beliefs, and attitudes. This is that internal conscious source of political behavior that encourages a person to set certain political goals and carry out specific political actions to achieve them.
The content of political interests is the entire set of those objects, goals and objectives of political activity that take possession of the consciousness of the subject of action (individuals, social groups, classes, parties and other political forces). Political interests, due to their diversity, represent a complex systemic formation. They can be classified on the following, most significant grounds: a) according to the degree of community (personal, group, class, public, state); b) according to the degree of awareness (acting spontaneously and on the basis of a developed program); c) according to its focus (domestic policy, foreign policy); d) if possible, their implementation (real and imaginary); e) in relation to the objective trend of social development (progressive, reactionary, conservative).
The political, power-significant interest of an individual and a social group is formalized through a system of social representation. Political subjects, realizing their interests through a system of social representation, cause changes in social opportunities and affect the interests of other communities. The state coordinates these interests and expresses the common interest of all citizens - maintaining social stability and, on this basis, pursuing a political course that reflects the collective will of the majority of citizens.
During the transition to the capitalist path of development, new mechanisms were created to unite society, based on the personal political and economic freedom of individuals who, in the process of life, develop common interests. A society that has such mechanisms is called civil. The state emerging from civil society is its official expression. Civil society has a need for the state as the official spokesman for common interests. Since the state expresses common interests and bases its activities on the common needs of the people, it is democratic. Democratic state power is based on a balance of interests of the whole society and its individual components. She performs publicly significant functions, which are delegated to the state because they cannot be performed by others structural elements civil society.
Subjects of politics are specific political bearers of diverse political activities aimed at gaining, protecting or using power in order to realize their fundamental interests. G. Almond, depending on the awareness of participation in politics, distinguishes three groups of its subjects: 1) personal subjects, driven by concern for the realization of their immediate, local, everyday interests and not aware of politics. the consequences of their participation, their watering. roles; 2) subjects-subjects who understand their political role and purpose, but do not see the opportunity to go beyond their limits and independently influence politics. life; 3) subject-participants who are clearly aware of their goals and ways of realizing them and use institutional mechanisms for this (parties, movements, etc.) The classification of political subjects is quite diverse. Perhaps the most widespread division is into two main levels: 1) social, including individuals and various social strata (including professional, ethnic, demographic, etc.). This includes the individual, professional group, nation, class, elite, etc.; 2) institutional, covering the state, parties, trade unions, political movements, institutionalized interest groups, etc. Sometimes a third, “functional” level is distinguished, including social institutions designed to perform primarily non-political tasks, although in reality they have a noticeable and sometimes very significant influence on politics: the church, universities, corporations, sports associations, etc. By quantitative characteristic watered subjects can be divided into individual (individual citizens, foreigners, stateless persons, etc.) and group (classes, ethnic groups, estates, elites, factions). Based on legal grounds, political subjects are divided into individuals (citizens, political leaders) and legal entities (socio-political organizations); According to the areas of policy, its carriers can be classified into subjects of domestic (citizens, leaders, parties) and foreign policy (peoples, states, its specialized bodies, interstate associations). Subjects of politics are also classified on the basis of their primacy or secondary nature. political participation. In this case, the first group includes citizens (with different political and legal status) and such social communities as classes, nations, political elites, and other social groups. The second group will include such political institutions as states, socio-political organizations and movements and interstate associations. It is possible to classify policy subjects according to other criteria. The subject is usually inextricably linked with the concept of an object, by which we mean some object of knowledge or human activity, the world around him. The object of politics is also a person, social groups, legal entities, experiencing the power influence of the subject. Thus, these are correlative and hierarchical concepts. Various relationships arise between the subjects and objects of politics, the general and main content of which is power. These political relationships are usually associated with various stages formation and functioning of power, its structure, institutions, etc. “Vertical” political relations mean dominance and subordination; they often manifest themselves as confrontation between subject and object, conflict, opposition, hegemony, etc. “Horizontal” relationships manifest themselves in the form of coordination, coordination of actions of equivalent entities, their cooperation (often these are contractual relations).
The primary subject of politics is the personality (individual). As the ancients (Protagoras) noted, “man is the measure of all things.” It is the individual, his interests, value orientations and goals that act as the “measure of politics”, the driving principle of the political activity of nations, classes, parties, etc. The problem of personality in political science has at least three main aspects: 1) personality as individual psycho-physiological (emotional, intellectual, etc.) characteristics of a person, his specific habits, value orientations, style of behavior, etc. When analyzing personality from this angle, the main attention is usually paid to political leaders, on whose individual characteristics big politics often depends; 2) a person as a representative of a group: status, professional, socio-ethnic, class, elite, masses, etc., as well as as a performer of a certain political role: voter, party member, parliamentarian, minister. This approach to personality seems to dissolve it in larger social formations or the roles prescribed to her and does not allow to reflect the autonomy and activity of the individual as a specific subject of politics; 3) a person as a relatively independent, active participant in political and social life, possessing reason and free will, not only universal, but also unique traits, i.e. as an integrity that is not reducible to its individual social (professional, class, national, etc.) characteristics and has the political status of a citizen or subject of the state. It is in this aspect that a person usually interacts with power, performs certain political duties and acts as a subject and an object, the subject of the influence of politics. This understanding of personality will be discussed in this chapter.
The question of who is the subject of the political process has been and remains very controversial. In accordance with the most “ancient” one, dating back to the political ideas of Plato and receiving theoretical justification in the philosophy of Hegel and F. Nietzsche, the elite theory, the main subjects of politics are the most gifted, “chosen” people, i.e. elites.
Marxist theory proceeds from the fact that the main creators of history and subjects of politics are social (political) classes, headed by a certain political organization, for example a party. Democratic concepts and theories declare the principles of democracy or the democratic majority as the subject of politics.
Most modern researchers agree that the subject of politics can be any formal and informal organizations that are aware of their political interests and are capable of defending them in political confrontation.
There is another point of view, according to which only formal subjects of political relations who perform their political functions can be subjects of the political process.
The question of the subjectivity of non-“political” actors, such as mass social movements, for modern Russia very relevant. Therefore, it is necessary to dwell on it in more detail.
In Art. 3 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation states: “1. The bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation is its multinational people... The people exercise their power directly, as well as through state authorities and bodies local government" Consequently, from a legal point of view, social movements, as a certain part of the people, are still a source of political power and a collective subject of political relations. In addition, they have political powers and legal grounds exercise their power not only through representative bodies, but also directly - through elections, referendums and mass protests.
Undoubtedly, subject of law And subject of politics - not identical concepts. The effectiveness of the conflict behavior of a “collective subject” in a political conflict depends on its mass character, organization, purposefulness and determination. The “Velvet Revolutions” in Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine and the popular revolt in Kyrgyzstan clearly demonstrated the ability of the masses to act as subjects and participants in the political process and achieve their goals. Who organized the performances of these “subjects” is a separate question.
The “collective subject” of the political process is not a homogeneous monolithic group. Already at the stage of its formation and development, it begins to be structured into: “activists”, “support groups”, “ordinary participants”, “curious fellow travelers”, etc. At the same time, either from their own environment or from the outside, legitimate ones appear, from the point of view of the “collective subject” ", leaders. For example, in Georgia and Ukraine, uprisings of the masses were organized (provoked) by well-known political leaders (Saakashvili, Yushenko), and the Polish Solidarity movement nominated its main leaders from among itself. Thus, the former electrician L. Walesa became not only one of the leaders of the movement, but also the president of the country. The leaders who lead the movement are empowered to represent the interests of the entire “collective subject.” Thus, subjectification occurs, and the mass movement itself becomes a “participant in the conflict,” which does not exclude its reverse transition.
Some authors propose to distinguish between concepts such as “subject of politics” and “political subject”. For subject of policy political activity is basic. These include the state, political parties, political institutions and organizations, political leaders, etc. political subjects include those who are forced to engage in politics in addition to their main activities (ordinary citizens, social groups, public organizations and etc.). If for the first - formal subjects - political power and authority are an end in themselves, then for the second - only a means of solving their social, economic and other problems.
The subject of the political process can be a real or potential subject of political relations. It does not matter whether this subject is an institutionalized political actor or became one only as a result of certain actions or events.
Subject of politics- is an actor in the political process (political relations), a bearer of substantive and practical political activity, capable of influencing the object of politics (power and power relations).
Subjects of politics can be an individual, a social group and organization, a political organization and movement, political institutions and government agencies; social community (class, nation, ethnic or religious group, society); political elites or counter-elites; a state, groups of states, the world community, i.e. all those who influence the political process in society or in the international arena.
Some researchers propose to classify policy subjects as follows:
- social level subjects: classes, ethnic groups, groups, individual, electorate, mafia, military-industrial complex, commercial bourgeoisie, etc.;
- institutional subjects of policy: state, party, trade union, parliament, president, university, etc.;
- functional subjects of policy: army, church, opposition, lobby, means mass media, transnational corporations, etc.
A political subject must have the ability and ability to influence political processes, for example, make political decisions or suspend their action, organize political actions or prevent them from taking place, actively participate in certain political events or deliberately ignore them.
Due to his many qualities or position in political structure the subject of politics is endowed with certain powers to make decisions concerning the fate of many people. At the same time, an ordinary citizen can also be a subject of politics if, through his actions and his position, he is able to attract the attention of broad social strata, the political elite and have a certain influence on the political process. The subject is active by nature and purposeful in his activities.
In real politics, the subjects, as a rule, are political elites and leaders who can be members of certain political groups, parties, movements, and head state institutions. Large social communities, protecting their interests, can also act as subjects of politics. But the heterogeneity of interests and the difficulty of coordinating their activities often lead to them becoming an object of manipulation in someone else’s political “game.”
The role of the subject in the political process, as already noted, is decisive. Therefore, he must also have the necessary strong-willed qualities and organizational skills in order to attract to his side the number of supporters and appropriate resources necessary to achieve the goal. The tragedy of modern Russian society is that the main social strata and classes, due to their passivity and disorganization, are actually excluded from politics. Public policy in the country is ostentatious, declarative in nature, and real political decisions are developed and adopted by shadow politics and shadow economy in the interests of the ruling elite.
Personality as a subject of politics
Personality- this is a set (system) of socially significant qualities that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society, as a product of social development, this is a social characteristic of a person, which is determined by the measure of a person’s assimilation of social experience.
In the system of political relations, a person is a bearer of certain political qualities and represents an element of the political system.
Some researchers associate the concept of “personality” with active life position person or his involvement in political activities. Thus, V. A. Maltsev believes that “a person is then a person when he takes an active social position”, “when the results of real politics threaten the interests of not only the membership group, but also personal interests themselves, the person (and not impersonality!) is necessarily included in political activity."
Such a definition of personality, in our opinion, is unlawful from a scientific point of view. Any person who has undergone a certain socialization and acquired socially significant qualities (even negative ones) is a person.
As for social activity or involvement in political activity, these are qualitative characteristics of an individual in certain types activities and have nothing to do with the concept of “personality”. A socially passive individual who does not participate in politics may have many very important social qualities, i.e. be a person, but are not subject politicians.
Personality as a subject of politics is an individual who takes an active and conscious part in political activity and has a certain influence on the political process.
Aristotle also said that man is a political being, since he lives in a state and is forced, one way or another, to engage in politics. To this statement of the ancient thinker we can add the following: if a person himself does not engage in politics (does not want, does not know how, etc.), then he still becomes the object of someone else’s politics.
J. Locke was the first in scientific theory to distinguish between concepts such as “personality,” “society,” and “state,” and put the individual in first place in terms of importance. This is how a theory arose that presupposes freedom of personal individuality, initiative, enterprise, and subjectivity.
With the emergence and development of civil society, a movement begins from “we” to “I”, from an impersonal mass of subjects guided by the instructions of the authorities to free individual citizens capable of defending their political interests.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual. Citizens of Russia can freely express their views and beliefs (if they are not extremist in nature); join public organizations and movements; create public organizations and political parties yourself; take part in representative government bodies; be elected to any representative bodies and government structures; participate in the management of state affairs.
However, it is necessary to distinguish between personality - subject of law and personality - subject of politics. To become a real subject of politics, an individual must have a certain political capital, have his own (group) political goals and interests and engage in political activities to realize them. An individual who is able to attract significant political potential to his side and is ready to defend his interests in real confrontation becomes a subject of the political process. A political subject who avoids political struggle loses his “subjectivity” (the status of a political subject). For example, the President of Kyrgyzstan A. Akaev, during popular unrest in the spring of 2005, trying to avoid bloodshed, left the country and lost his presidential post. Nicholas II abdicated the throne in February 1917 and turned from a subject of political conflict into its victim.
The following options for individual participation (non-participation) in politics can be distinguished:
- active participation, when politics is a profession, calling or meaning of life for an individual;
- situational participation, when an individual participates in politics, solving his personal or group problems, or fulfilling his civic duty, for example, by participating in elections or expressing the position of his social group at a political rally;
- motivated non-participation, as a protest against the current policy;
- mobilization participation when an individual is forced to take part in certain socio-political events or events. Such participation is most characteristic of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes;
- suspension from any political events, reluctance to participate in the political process, due to personal apoliticality and passivity.
In the first cases, the individual acts as a subject of politics, since to one degree or another he can influence the political process. In the cases specified in clauses 4 and 5, the individual is not the subject of the policy. Apolitical and passive individuals are easily susceptible to political manipulation and, as a rule, become an object in “alien” politics. At the same time, it is appropriate to recall the words that have become an aphorism: “If you do not want to get involved in politics, then sooner or later politics itself will deal with you.”
The degree of a person’s involvement in politics depends on a number of subjective and objective factors, including:
- the level of political culture, civic consciousness and individual social activity of the individual;
- the degree of infringement of personal and group interests and the desire to protect them;
- objectively established conditions and prerequisites stimulating socio-political changes in society;
- the socio-political and economic situation that has arisen in society (region);
- possession of various types of capital (economic, political, symbolic, etc.), allowing an individual to rely on the support of certain social groups.
The vast majority of ordinary citizens have the opportunity to become (feel like) subjects of politics only during certain periods, for example, during elections, referendums, political demonstrations, etc. In normal times, subjective political activity is the monopoly of professionals who, according to P. Bourdieu, produce and offer citizens to choose a political “product” that meets, first of all, the interests of monopolists. Therefore, a real subject of politics can only be an individual who has the support of a certain part of the political elite or broad social strata.
In the Russian political system, the number of ordinary citizens - subjects of politics is very limited, since there are no sufficiently developed institutions of civil society and the corresponding legal framework that would facilitate the involvement of citizens in political activities.
Participants in the political process and political participation
Large social communities become direct political subjects, as a rule, during mass political events: uprisings, revolutions, etc. But in calmer times, they participate in the political process through their representatives, i.e. indirectly. Therefore, in such cases, the definition of “participants in the political process” is more suitable for them.
Participants in the political process- these are individuals, groups, organizations, work collectives, social communities, etc., taking part in certain political events or political life in general.
If a political subject, as a rule, has his own interests and goals in politics, his own ways and methods of achieving these goals and shows increased political activity and initiative, then the participant, as a rule, does not possess all of the listed qualities. He may consciously or not quite consciously take part in political events, may accidentally be involved in these events or become a participant under coercion. For example, under the communist regime, the authorities in the USSR forced people to participate in mass political events (subbotniks, rallies, demonstrations, etc.), and those who did not want to be “extras” in someone else’s political game were subjected to various shapes punishments.
During the development of political events, subjects and participants may change places. Thus, an ordinary participant in a mass political event may realize his interest in politics and become a leader or be elected to a leading political position; and a former political functionary, having lost legitimacy and his position, can join the ranks of ordinary participants in the political process.
In each state, depending on the level of development of civil society and the political culture of citizens, on historical traditions and other factors, one or another form and degree of involvement of citizens in the political process develops. This involvement of citizens in politics is called political participation.
Political participation should be distinguished from such similar concepts as political activity and political behavior.
Political activity is a set of organized actions of policy subjects aimed at implementing common tasks political system.
Political behavior reflects the qualitative characteristics of participation and activity.
Political participation is the involvement of citizens in the political process, in certain political actions. Here we are talking primarily about the participation in politics of citizens who do not claim the “title” of professional politicians, for example, the participation of ordinary voters in the election campaign.
The involvement of citizens in the political process, as mentioned above, depends on many factors, including the confidence of a particular voter that his vote in the elections will have at least some impact positive influence to solve his personal problems and improve the general situation in the country.
But in real life Some citizens, disappointed in the effectiveness of their personal participation in the political process, do not want to participate in it, others do not participate due to their passivity, and others ignore political events for reasons of principle. There is a category of citizens who do not have the opportunity and means to take part in the political process. For example, such people prefer to work in their garden on Election Day. Aristotle pointed out this problem. He, in particular, complained that middle-income people are little involved in politics, since they are forced to earn their living when others are protesting.
In political theory, the following reasons and grounds for the participation of individuals and groups in the political process are distinguished:
- the desire to realize one’s interests, to benefit from political participation;
- participation as a desire to protect one’s interests, for example, to prevent a reduction in production in a certain industry;
- the desire to express one’s loyalty to the existing regime of power or to support one or another political party or movement;
- desire for success in life and social recognition through participation in politics;
- understanding public duty and exercising one’s own civil rights;
- understanding (awareness) of the social significance of the upcoming political event.
There is also such a mechanism for involvement in the political process as mobilization participation. It involves the use in various ways coercion or encouragement in order to attract citizens to participate in a particular political event. For example, during the Soviet era, a person who refused to go to a vote or rally could be deprived of his thirteenth salary or the queue for housing could be pushed back. During the presidential elections in Yakutia at the end of 2001, voters were lured to the polling stations with valuable gifts.
There are two main forms of political participation of citizens in the political process: direct and indirect.
Direct participation implies that an individual or group personally participates in a particular political event, for example, in the elections of members of parliament. Indirect participation is carried out through its representatives. For example, a popularly elected parliament, on behalf of its voters, forms a government, issues laws, that is, carries out political governance of the country.
Researchers of the problem divide various types of participation into three main types:
- participation-solidarity aimed at supporting the existing political system;
- participation-demand or protest aimed at partial or radical change in the existing course of development of society;
- deviant participation - the use of unconstitutional, including violent, methods with the aim of overthrowing the existing regime (A. Marshall).
The role, meaning and forms of political participation largely depend on the type of political system, political regime in the country. In a democratic system, political participation is one of the forms of citizen participation in government. It performs such important functions as putting forward demands for making the necessary political decisions, coordinating the political course of the government and the president, and monitoring the implementation of certain political decisions. Political participation can also confirm or deny the legitimacy of an existing political regime. Most important function political participation in a democratic society - participation in elections with the aim of shaping government agencies authorities. Moreover, political participation is effective form political socialization of citizens. By taking part in political events, citizens develop certain political qualities.
In a totalitarian political system, as a rule, only one form of political participation of citizens is allowed - mobilization. Initiatives not sanctioned by the authorities are punishable. Usually, for the next demonstration of the unity of the people and the ruling elite (party or leader), parades, processions, rallies, election campaigns are held, the forms of conduct, the number of participants and the results of which are predetermined by the ruling regime. Such mobilization participation is one of the methods of political manipulation and an imitation of the real participation of citizens in the political process.
The problem of the subject and object of political activity is the problem of determining the roles of participants in the political process, their relationships, interests, power and influence, ability to fight for power and implement a political course. The peculiarity of politics is that mutual transitions of subject and object are possible, that is, the subject of politics can be its object and, conversely, the object of politics turns into a subject.
Political governance and power serve as a means of ensuring joint, coordinated activities of all social communities, political institutions, and all members of society to implement their common needs and interests. It follows that society and social communities are objects of politics. People, social groups, parties, movements, organizations that are influenced by the state and society are also objects of politics.
Subjects of political activity are participants in the political process, acting freely and independently. Freedom is understood as the ability of the subject to choose his own goals and means of achieving them. Without freedom of choice there is no freedom of action. Independence means that the subject has his own needs and interests, which distinguish him from other subjects and are recognized by him. Groups of people become subjects of political activity when they acquire certain political qualities.
Political subjects act in society different levels. The people and their large social groups (strata, classes, nations) are the primary subjects, since in a democratic society the people are the source of state power. He exercises his power directly and through state and other political institutions.
The state, political parties, movements, other socio-political institutions and organizations are secondary subjects. They are secondary because they act on behalf of the people.
Political elites, political leaders, and bureaucracy constitute the third type of political subjects. They are tertiary, as they realize their roles through political institutions and organizations. This is a narrow group of people who makes political decisions and carries them through political institutions. The interaction of political subjects is determined by the type of political regime.
Political subjects of the first type determine all others. Political institutions, elites, and leaders also act as political subjects, since they express the common interests of the people, nation, and social community. The state represents society, as well as the interests of certain social groups. Parties integrate the interests of certain segments of the population and really exist as long as they express and defend them in their political programs and practical activities. Political leaders are perceived by the masses and parties as such, provided that they are aware of their aspirations, interests, will and offer appropriate solutions.
The participation of subjects in politics can be spontaneous and conscious. A spontaneous process is a process not controlled by people. It manifests itself, as a rule, in connection with a sharp deterioration in their situation. Spontaneous, elemental actions are often used by certain circles to achieve their selfish, ambitious goals. Therefore they are destructive. Spontaneity speaks of the underdevelopment of a person, a movement, and their lack of organization. At the same time, spontaneity acts as an indicator of vitality social movement, unstoppable pressure of the masses. Today it is obvious that the “planned” dismantling of the command system planned in Russia has turned into disorderly spontaneous destruction.
Political activity can be consciously regulated if it is carried out in accordance with a predetermined task.
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