Signaling systems are systems of conditioned stimuli that signal the occurrence of a particular event. The founder of the doctrine of the first and second signal systems is I. P. Pavlov.
If signaling is carried out by specific objective stimuli (light, sound, smell, etc.), then such a system of signals constitutes the first signaling system common to humans and animals.
First signaling system- a set of nervous processes that arose in the cortex big brain with direct impact on sensory systems factors of external and internal environment. The anatomical basis of the first signaling system is the analyzers, which are connected by nerve pathways to the sense organs. The first signaling system is the basis for the direct reflection of objective reality in the form of sensations and perceptions. Provides subject specific thinking.
If signaling is carried out by stimuli that are the result of generalization of specific signals (words), then such a system of signals constitutes a second signaling system, inherent only to humans.
Second signaling system - This is a set of nervous processes that arise in the cerebral cortex as a reaction to words and the concepts designated by them. The anatomical basis of the second signaling system is the cultural-motor analyzer, which is closely connected with the visual and auditory analyzers. Thanks to the presence of the second signaling system, conditions are created for abstract thinking, which significantly expands the adaptive capabilities of a person. Words and phrases record connections between objects and phenomena, therefore words are signals of signals. The establishment of a connection between verbal signals and real stimuli occurs according to the laws of education conditioned reflexes. The second signaling system is a reflection of the surrounding reality by generalizing abstract concepts using words. With the advent of the second signaling system, a new principle appears nervous activity - abstraction and generalization large quantity signals entering the brain. This principle determines the unlimited orientation of a person in the world around him. The second signaling system is the highest regulator various forms human behavior in the environment. However, it correctly reflects the objective world only if its consistent interaction with the first signaling system is constantly maintained. The second functions thanks to information coming from the first signaling system, transforming it into specific concepts. Both signaling systems constantly interact and obey general physiological laws and mechanisms.
How younger child, the more its reactions are determined by the first signaling system. The verbal, or other, signaling system begins to gradually form after 10 months of age. The learning process vigorously stimulates its development, but at the same time it must be ensured normal ratio in the development of signaling systems. It is necessary to strive for children to acquire knowledge on the basis of visual representations, observations of the phenomena of reality and direct actions with objects, tools and instruments.
The signaling system is a set of processes in the nervous system that perceive, analyze information and respond to the body.. Physiologist I.P. Pavlov developed the doctrine of the first and second signal systems. First signaling system he called the activity of the cerebral cortex, which is associated with the perception of direct stimuli (signals) through receptors external environment, for example, light, heat, pain, etc. It is the basis for the development of conditioned reflexes and is characteristic of both animals and humans.
Man, unlike animals, is also characterized by second signaling system, associated with the function of speech, with the word, audible or visible (written speech). The word, according to I.P. Pavlov, is a signal for the operation of the first signaling system (“signal of signals”). For example, a person’s actions will be the same in response to the word “fire” and the fire actually observed (visual irritation) by him. The formation of a conditioned reflex based on speech is a qualitative feature of human higher nervous activity. The second signaling system was formed in humans in connection with the social way of life and collective work, in which it is a means of communication with each other. Words, speech, writing are not only an auditory or visual stimulus, they carry certain information about an object or phenomenon. In the process of learning speech in a person, temporary connections arise between cortical neurons that perceive signals from various objects, phenomena and events, and centers that perceive the verbal designation of these objects, phenomena and events, their semantic meaning. That is why, after a person has formed a conditioned reflex to some stimulus, it is easily reproduced without reinforcement, if this stimulus is expressed verbally. For example, in response to the phrase “iron is hot,” a person will withdraw his hand from it. A dog can also develop a conditioned reflex to a word, but it perceives it as a certain sound combination, without understanding the meaning.
Verbal signaling in humans has made it possible for an abstract and generalized perception of phenomena that are expressed in concepts, judgments and inferences. For example, the word “trees” generalizes numerous tree species and distracts from the specific characteristics of each tree species. The ability to generalize and abstract is the basis thinking person. Thanks to the abstract logical thinking, a person learns the world and its laws. The ability to think is used by a person in his practical activities, when he sets certain goals, outlines ways of implementation and achieves them. In the course of the historical development of mankind, thanks to thinking, enormous knowledge about the external world has been accumulated.
Thus, thanks to the first signaling system, a specifically sensory perception of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself is achieved. The development of the second signaling system provided an abstractly generalized perception of the external world in the form of concepts, judgments, and conclusions. These two signaling systems closely interact with each other, since the second signaling system arose on the basis of the first and functions in connection with it. In humans, the second signaling system prevails over the first due to the social way of life and developed thinking.
We perceive the world around us thanks to two systems: the first and second signaling systems.
To obtain information about the state of the body and the external environment, the first signaling system uses all of the human senses: touch, vision, smell, hearing and taste. The second, younger, signaling system allows us to perceive the world through speech. Its development occurs on the basis of and in interaction with the first in the process of human development and growth. In this article we will look at what the first signaling system is, how it develops and functions.
How does this happen in animals?
All animals can use only one source of information about the surrounding reality and changes in its state, which is the first signaling system. The external world, represented through various objects possessing a variety of chemical and physical properties, such as color, smell, shape, etc., act as conditioned signals that warn the body about changes to which it is necessary to adapt. Thus, a herd of deer dozing in the sun, sensing the scent of a creeping predator, suddenly takes off and flees. The stimulus became a signal of approaching danger.
Thus, in higher animals the first (conditioned reflex) signaling system is an accurate reflection of the external world around us, allowing us to correctly respond to changes and adapt to them. All its signals relate to a specific object and are specific. constituting the basis of the elementary object-related thinking of animals are formed through precisely this system.
The human first signaling system functions in the same way as in higher animals. Its isolated functioning is observed only in newborns, from birth to the age of six months, if the child is in a normal social environment. The formation and development of the second signaling system occurs in the process and as a consequence of education and between people.
Types of nervous activity
Man is a complex being, which in its historical development has gone through complex changes both in its anatomical and physiological, as well as in its psychological structure and functioning. The entire complex of diverse processes occurring in his body is carried out and controlled through one of the main physiological systems- nervous.
The activities of this system are divided into lower and higher. For control and management of everyone internal organs and systems human body The so-called lower nervous activity responds. Interactions with objects and objects of the surrounding reality through such neuropsychic processes and mechanisms as intelligence, perception, thinking, speech, memory, attention are classified as higher nervous activity (HNA). Such interaction occurs through the direct impact of various objects on receptors, for example, auditory or visual, with further transmission of the received signals by the nervous system to the information-processing organ - the brain. It was this type of signaling that the Russian scientist I.P. Pavlov called the first signaling system. Thanks to it, the emergence and development of the second signaling system, characteristic only for people and associated with the audible (speech) or visible word (written sources), became possible.
What are signaling systems?
Based on the works of the famous Russian physiologist and naturalist I.M. Sechenov on the reflex activity of the higher parts of the brain, I.P. Pavlov created a theory about GNI - higher nervous activity of man. Within the framework of this doctrine, the concept of what signaling systems are was formulated. They are understood as complexes of conditioned reflex connections formed in the cerebral cortex (isocortex) as a result of the receipt of various impulses from the outside world or from systems and organs of the body. That is, the work of the first signaling system is aimed at performing analytical and synthetic operations to recognize signals coming from the senses about objects in the external world.
As a result social development and speech acquisition, a second signaling system arose and evolved. As the child’s psyche grows and develops, the ability to understand and then reproduce speech gradually develops as a consequence of the emergence and consolidation of associative connections, spoken sounds or words with sensory impressions about objects in the external environment.
Features of the first signaling system
In this signaling system, both the means and methods of communication and all other forms of behavior are based on the direct perception of the surrounding reality and the reaction to impulses coming from it in the process of interaction. The first human signaling system is a response concrete sensory reflection of the impact on receptors from the outside world.
First, the body experiences a sensation of any phenomena, properties or objects perceived by the receptors of one or more sense organs. Then the sensations are transformed into more complex forms - perception. And only after the second signaling system has been formed and developed, does it become possible to create abstract forms of reflection that are not tied to a specific object, such as representations and concepts.
Localization of signaling systems
Behind normal functioning Both signaling systems are responsible for centers located in the cerebral hemispheres. The reception and processing of information for the first signaling system is carried out by both the perception and processing of the information flow for the second signaling system, which is responsible for the development of logical thinking. The second (more than the first) human signaling system depends on the structural integrity of the brain and its functioning.
Relationship between signaling systems
According to Pavlov, the second and first signaling systems are in constant interaction and are interconnected according to the functions they perform. This is due to the fact that on the basis of the first, a second signaling system arose and developed. Coming from the environment and from different parts body signals of the first are in continuous interaction with the signals of the second. During such interaction, conditioned reflexes of a higher order arise, which create functional connections between them. Due to developed thought processes and social lifestyle, a person has a more developed second signaling system.
Stages of development
In the process of individual mental development For a child born at term, the first signaling system begins to take shape within a few days after birth. At the age of 7-10 days, the formation of the first conditioned reflexes is possible. So, the baby makes sucking movements with his lips even before the nipple is put in his mouth. Conditioned reflexes to sound stimuli can be formed at the beginning of the second month of life.
The older the child becomes, the faster his conditioned reflexes are formed. In order to one month old baby a temporary connection has appeared, many repetitions of the influence of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli will have to be made. In a two to three month old baby, it only takes a few repetitions to create the same temporary connection.
The second signaling system begins to take shape in children aged one and a half years, when, with repeated naming of an object, together with its demonstration, the child begins to respond to the word. In children, it comes to the fore only by the age of 6-7 years.
Role reversal
Thus, in the process psychophysical development child, throughout childhood and adolescence, there is a change in significance and priority between these signaling systems. IN school age and right up to the start puberty the second signaling system comes to the fore. During puberty, due to significant hormonal and physiological changes in the body of adolescents, for a short period the first signaling system again becomes the leading one. By high school, the second signaling system again becomes a leader and maintains its dominant position throughout life, constantly improving and developing.
Meaning
The first signaling system in humans, despite the predominance of the second in adults, has great importance in such forms human activity, like sports, creativity, learning and work. Without her, the work of a musician and artist, actor and professional athlete would be impossible.
Despite the similarity of this system in humans and animals, in humans the first signaling system is a much more complex and advanced structure, since it is in constant harmonious interaction with the second.
According to Pavlov, the higher nervous activity of animals even at high level development, comes down mainly to a set of diverse and heterogeneous conditioned reflexes of the first signaling system, common to humans and animals. First signaling system- the basis for directly reflecting reality in the form of sensations and perceptions. Despite gradual development speech, conditioned reflexes of the first signaling system still continue to form the main fund of the higher nervous activity of children in the first years of life and occupy a certain place in the higher nervous activity of a person in subsequent age periods. Pavlov refers to this type of conditioned reflex activity as a person’s sensations, ideas and impressions of the surrounding external environment, including the social one, excluding verbal and speech signals. However, in humans, due to the development social forms labor activity“...signals of the second degree appeared, developed and were extremely improved, the signals of these primary signals - in the form of words, spoken, audible and visible.”
Second signaling system is a system of speech signals. This is a qualitatively new, higher and more perfect second signaling system of reality, also based on conditioned reflex mechanisms, is characteristic only of the higher nervous activity of a person, is in close interaction with the first signaling system and plays a leading role in his conscious life, provides the basis for generalization and thinking. Constantly emphasizing the fundamental, qualitative difference between these two types of higher nervous activity, Pavlov simultaneously pointed out the limited connection between them, and that the basic laws established in the work of the first signaling system should govern the second.
Pavlov said that “... the word constituted the second, especially ours, signaling system of reality, being a signal of the first signals.” Both human signaling systems, having qualitative differences, function in close interaction and unity.
Words, in the words of I.P. Pavlov, signal signals, since they replace directly acting conditioned stimuli.
A word acts as an irritant on a person if it is spoken, written, read, or even “said” mentally. Therefore, in teaching general education and special subjects, the word plays a leading role. Telling yourself a task helps you understand better educational material, understand it. The same applies to learning movements. If a student can correctly talk about the movement as a whole and its details, then he has mastered the movement. Errors in the execution of the movement will be reflected in the story about it. If you correct these mistakes verbally, you will be able to correct them faster in action.
“Mental” training is no less important. When a person thinks about a movement, he mentally performs it. At the same time, the muscles make barely noticeable contractions, and formation occurs in the cerebral cortex nerve pathways to close reflex arcs. It's a lot like muscle memory. In education and the development of discipline, the influence of words is the strongest and most powerful.
Speech is the ability to communicate using words, sounds and other elements of language. Speech is language in action. Language is a system of signs, including words with their meanings plus syntax - a set of rules by which sentences are constructed.
Speech has three functions: signification (designation), generalization, communication (transfer of knowledge, relationships, feelings).
The significative function distinguishes human speech from animal communication. A person has an idea of an object or phenomenon associated with a word. Mutual understanding in the process of communication is thus based on the unity of designation of objects and phenomena by the perceiver and the speaker.
The generalization function is due to the fact that a word denotes not only a separate, given object, but also a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential characteristics.
The third function of speech is the function of communication, i.e. transfer of information. If the first two functions of speech can be considered as internal mental activity, then the communicative function acts as external speech behavior aimed at contacts with other people. The communicative function of speech is divided into three sides: informational, expressive and volitional.
The information side is manifested in the transfer of knowledge and is closely related to the functions of designation and generalization.
The expressive side of speech helps to convey the speaker’s feelings and attitudes towards the subject of the message.
The volitional side is aimed at subordinating the listener to the speaker’s intention.
The second signaling system became a powerful means of human self-government and self-regulation. Perception has acquired such qualities as objectivity, constancy, meaningfulness, structure; attention became voluntary, memory became logical, thinking became verbal and abstract. Almost everything mental processes human beings, as a result of the use of speech to control them, went beyond the limits of their natural limitations and gained the opportunity for further, potentially limitless improvement.
Second signaling system- a special type of higher nervous activity of a person, a system of “signals” coming from the first signaling system common (but not identical) with animals - sensations, ideas related to the surrounding world. Speech, as a second signaling system, as a semiotic system of significances (see Semiotics) is “going to the cortex from the speech organs there are second signals, signals of signals. They represent an abstraction from reality and allow generalization, which constitutes our superfluous, specifically human, higher thinking, which creates first universal human empiricism, and, finally, science - a tool for man’s highest orientation in the world around him and in himself.” I. P. Pavlov (1932).
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2nd signaling system - the speech system - a system of conditioned reflex connections to a speech stimulus. Provides speech perception and reproduction.
This system functions as a speech motor analyzer, consisting of 3 sections:
- peripheral - receptors of sound-producing organs (oral muscles, larynx);
- conductive - 3-neuron: 1- in the cranial ganglia; 2 — in formations of the brain stem; 3 - in the visual tuberosities;
brain section analyzer - in the left hemisphere (in right-handed people) - consists of 3 components:
- Broca's motor center in the lower parts of the frontal lobe, where the muscles of the sound-pronouncing apparatus are projected;
- Wernicke's center - sensory - in the temporal lobe - provides speech perception;
- the center for the perception of written speech is in the occipital region of the cerebral cortex.
The substrate of the 2nd signal system is the brain section of the speech motor analyzer.
This system is excited under the influence of speech stimuli, that is, for it, the adequate stimulus is the word. Due to the activity of the 2nd signaling system, abstract images arise in the cerebral cortex, i.e. abstract thinking.
Features of the 2nd alarm system compared to the 1st alarm system:
- high degree of excitation irradiation;
- high frequency of conditioned reflexes and their rapid restructuring;
- ease of occurrence of braking processes.
Electroencephalography.
Electroencephalography is a research method electrical activity brain.
The method is based on the principle of recording electrical potentials appearing in nerve cells in the course of their activities. The electrical activity of the brain is small, expressed in millionths of a volt.
2. Pavlov's teaching about 1 and 2 signal systems.
The study of the biopotentials of the brain is therefore carried out using special, highly sensitive measuring instruments or amplifiers called electroencephalographs (Fig.). For this purpose, metal plates (electrodes) are placed on the surface of the human skull, which are connected by wires to the input of the electroencephalograph.
The output of the device is graphic image on paper, fluctuations in the difference in biopotentials of the brain, called an electroencephalogram (EEG).
EEG data turns out to be different in a healthy and sick person.
At rest, the EEG of an adult healthy person shows rhythmic fluctuations of two types of biopotentials. Larger oscillations, with an average frequency of 10 per 1 sec. and with a voltage of 50 microvolts are called alpha waves. Other, smaller oscillations, with an average frequency of 30 per 1 sec. and a voltage of 15-20 microvolts are called beta waves. If a person’s brain moves from a state of relative rest to a state of activity, then the alpha rhythm weakens and the beta rhythm increases.
During sleep, both the alpha rhythm and the beta rhythm decrease and slower biopotentials appear with a frequency of 4-5 or 2-3 vibrations per 1 second. and a frequency of 14-22 vibrations per 1 second. In children, the EEG differs from the results of studying the electrical activity of the brain in adults and approaches them as the brain fully matures, i.e.
e. by 13-17 years of age.
At various diseases various abnormalities occur on the EEG. Signs of pathology on the resting EEG are: persistent absence of alpha activity (desynchronization of the alpha rhythm) or, conversely, its sharp increase (hypersynchronization); violation of the regularity of fluctuations in biopotentials; as well as the appearance pathological forms biopotentials - high-amplitude slow (theta and delta waves, sharp waves, peak-wave complexes and paroxysmal discharges, etc.
d. Based on these disorders, a neuropathologist can determine the severity and, to a certain extent, the nature of the brain disease. So, for example, if there is a tumor in the brain or a cerebral hemorrhage has occurred, electroencephalographic waveforms give the doctor an indication of where (in what part of the brain) the damage is located.
With epilepsy on the EEG, even in the interictal period, one can observe the occurrence against the background of normal bioelectrical activity sharp waves or peak-wave complexes.
Electroencephalography is especially important when the question arises about the need for brain surgery to remove a tumor, abscess or foreign body. Electroencephalography data in combination with other research methods are used to outline a plan for future surgery.
In all cases when, when examining a patient with a central nervous system disease, a neurologist suspects structural lesions of the brain, an electroencephalographic study is advisable. For this purpose, it is recommended to refer patients to specialized institutions where electroencephalography rooms operate.
The doctrine of twouh signaling systems
The great Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 – 1936), the creator of the materialistic doctrine of higher nervous activity, developed the idea of two human signaling systems.
His work in this area played a huge role in the development of physiology, medicine, psychology and pedagogy. Let's take a closer look at his idea about signaling systems.
Signaling systems are systems of conditioned reflex connections that are formed in the cerebral cortex when impulses from external and internal stimuli enter it.
The first signaling system is characteristic of all highly organized living organisms, including humans.
It is based on the development of conditioned reflexes, which serve as a response to various external stimuli (light, pain, sound, etc.). General nervous processes for humans and animals in this case are the analysis and synthesis of specific signals, objects and phenomena of the external world. Thus, the first signaling system is the totality of our senses, which gives the simplest idea of the surrounding reality. This is a form of direct reflection of reality in the form of sensations and perceptions.
Unlike the first, the second signaling system is formed only in humans when exposed to speech signals.
It represents a highly developed consciousness and abstract thinking, unique to the species Homo Sapiens. This is explained by the fact that man is the only creature of nature capable of speaking. It was the development of articulate speech that led to changes in the activity of the gray cortex of the cerebral hemispheres.
The result is the presence of consciousness.
For a person, the word is of great importance. A word heard, spoken or visible is a definite signal, and not just a conditioned stimulus. Words create a second signaling system when a person begins to understand their meaning, that is, he reacts not to the stimulus itself, but only to its verbal designation. Thus, the free use of words as a kind of signal carrying one meaning or another is an integral component of people’s abstract thinking.
Depending on the predominance of one of the signaling systems, Pavlov divided people into three types:
- The artistic type to which he classified representatives with imaginative thinking (the first signaling system dominates among them).
- A thinking type, whose representatives have highly developed verbal thinking and a mathematical mindset (dominance of the second signaling system).
- The average type, in whose representatives both systems are mutually balanced.
Pavlov’s teaching about two signaling systems is of great importance in the development of the science of human physiology and psychology, and is also successfully used by doctors.
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The signaling system is a set of processes in the nervous system that carry out the perception, analysis of information and the body's response.
Pavlov's doctrine of two signal systems of reality
Physiologist I.P. Pavlov developed the doctrine of the first and second signal systems. First signaling system he called the activity of the cerebral cortex, which is associated with the perception through receptors of direct stimuli (signals) of the external environment, for example, light, heat, pain, etc.
d. It is the basis for the development of conditioned reflexes and is characteristic of both animals and humans.
Man, unlike animals, is also characterized by second signaling system, associated with the function of speech, with the word, audible or visible (written speech).
The word, according to I.P. Pavlov, is a signal for the operation of the first signaling system (“signal of signals”). For example, a person’s actions will be the same in response to the word “fire” and the fire actually observed (visual irritation) by him. The formation of a conditioned reflex based on speech is a qualitative feature of human higher nervous activity. The second signaling system was formed in humans in connection with the social way of life and collective work, in which it is a means of communication with each other.
Words, speech, writing are not only an auditory or visual stimulus, they carry certain information about an object or phenomenon. In the process of learning speech in a person, temporary connections arise between cortical neurons that perceive signals from various objects, phenomena and events, and centers that perceive the verbal designation of these objects, phenomena and events, their semantic meaning.
That is why, after a person has formed a conditioned reflex to some stimulus, it is easily reproduced without reinforcement, if this stimulus is expressed verbally.
For example, in response to the phrase “iron is hot,” a person will withdraw his hand from it. A dog can also develop a conditioned reflex to a word, but it perceives it as a certain sound combination, without understanding the meaning.
Verbal signaling in humans has made it possible for an abstract and generalized perception of phenomena that are expressed in concepts, judgments and inferences. For example, the word “trees” generalizes numerous tree species and distracts from the specific characteristics of each tree species.
The ability to generalize and abstract is the basis of human thinking. Thanks to abstract logical thinking, a person learns about the world around him and its laws. The ability to think is used by a person in his practical activities, when he sets certain goals, outlines ways of implementation and achieves them.
In the course of the historical development of mankind, thanks to thinking, enormous knowledge about the external world has been accumulated.
Thus, thanks to the first signaling system, a specifically sensory perception of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself is achieved. The development of the second signaling system provided an abstractly generalized perception of the external world in the form of concepts, judgments, and conclusions.
These two signaling systems closely interact with each other, since the second signaling system arose on the basis of the first and functions in connection with it. In humans, the second signaling system prevails over the first due to the social way of life and developed thinking.
All patterns of conditioned reflex activity are common to higher animals and humans. And a person develops conditioned reflexes to various signals from the external world or the internal state of the body, if only various irritations of extero- or interoreceptors are combined with any irritations that cause unconditioned or conditioned reflexes.
And in a person, under appropriate conditions, external (unconditional) or internal (conditional) inhibition occurs. And in humans there is irradiation and concentration of excitation and inhibition, induction, dynamic stereotypy and others characteristic manifestations conditioned reflex activity.
Common to both animals and humans are the analysis and synthesis of direct signals from the external world, which constitute first signaling system reality.
On this occasion, I.P. Pavlov said: “For an animal, reality is signaled almost exclusively only by irritations and their traces in the cerebral hemispheres, directly arriving in special cells of the visual, auditory and other receptors of the body.
This is what we also have in ourselves as impressions, sensations and ideas from the surrounding external environment, both natural and social, excluding the word, audible and visible. This - first signaling system reality, we have in common with animals.”
In the process of social development, as a result of work activity, a person has an extraordinary increase in the mechanisms of brain function. She became second signaling system, associated with verbal signaling, with speech.
This highly sophisticated signaling system consists of the perception of words - spoken (aloud or silently), heard or visible (reading). The development of the second signaling system has incredibly expanded and qualitatively changed the higher nervous activity of humans.
The emergence of speech signaling introduced a new principle into the activity of the cerebral hemispheres. “If our sensations and ideas,” said I.
P. Pavlov, - relating to the surrounding world, are for us the first signals of reality, concrete signals, then speech, especially, first of all, kinesthetic stimuli going to the cortex from the speech organs, are the second signals, signals of signals.
They represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which constitutes our superfluous specifically human higher thinking, which creates first universal human empiricism, and finally science - a tool for man’s highest orientation in the world around him and in himself.”
A person uses verbal signals to designate everything that he perceives with the help of his receptors. The word “signal of signals” makes it possible to escape from specific objects and phenomena.
The development of verbal signaling made possible generalization and abstraction, which find their expression in human concepts. “Every word (speech) already generalizes.
Feelings show reality; thought and word are common.” Second signaling system inextricably linked with social life human, is the result of the complex relationship in which the individual finds himself with the social environment around him.
Verbal signaling, speech, language are means of communication between people; they developed among people in the process of collective work. Thus, the second signaling system is socially determined.
Outside society - without communication with other people - the second signaling system does not develop.
Cases have been described in which children carried away by wild animals remained alive and grew up in an animal den. They did not understand speech and could not speak. It is also known that people at a young age isolated for decades from the society of other people, they forgot their speech; their second alarm system stopped functioning.
The doctrine of higher nervous activity made it possible to reveal the patterns of functioning of the second signaling system.
It turned out that the basic laws of excitation and inhibition are common to both the first and second signal systems.
Excitation of any point in the cerebral cortex in humans is brought into connection with the areas of speech perception and its expression, i.e., with the sensory and motor centers of speech. Evidence of this is given in the experiments of A.G. Ivanov-Smolensky and his colleagues on children.
After the formation of a conditioned reflex to any sound or light signal, for example, to the sound of a bell or the flashing of a red lamp, a verbal designation of the conditioned signal, i.e.
e. the words “bell”, “red color” immediately evoke a conditioned reflex without prior combination with an unconditioned stimulus. Under the opposite conditions of the experiment, when a conditioned reflex was developed in response to a verbal signal, i.e., when the conditioned stimulus was the words “bell” or “red lamp,” the conditioned reflex was observed at the very first use as a stimulus of the sound of a bell or the flashing of a red lamp, which have never been combined with unconditional irritation before.
In some experiments L.
I. Kotlyarevsky's unconditioned irritant was the darkening of the eye, which caused dilation of the pupil. The conditioned stimulus was the bell. After developing a conditioned reflex about the sound of a bell, it was enough to say the word “bell”, and the conditioned reflex appeared. Moreover, if the subject himself uttered this word, then a conditioned reflex of constriction or dilation of the pupil also arose. The same phenomena were observed if the unconditioned stimulus was pressure on eyeball, causing a reflex decrease in cardiac activity.
The mechanism of such conditioned reflex reactions is due to the fact that in the process of learning speech, long before the experiments, temporary connections arose between cortical points that perceive signals from various objects, and speech centers that perceive verbal designations of objects.
Thus, speech centers are involved in the formation of temporary connections in the human cerebral cortex. In all the experiments described, we encounter the phenomenon of elective irradiation, which consists in the fact that excitations from the first signal system are transmitted to the second and back.
Selective irradiation is an essentially new physiological principle, manifested in the activity of the second signaling system and characterizing its relationship with the first.
A word is perceived by a person not only as a separate sound or a sum of sounds, but as a specific concept, i.e.
e. its semantic meaning is perceived. This is proven by the experiments of L.A. Schwartz, who, having developed a conditioned reflex to a word, for example, “path,” then replaced it with a synonym, for example, the word “path.”
Doctrine of two signaling systems
The synonymous word evoked exactly the same conditioned reflex reaction as the word for which the conditioned reflex was developed. A similar phenomenon was observed when replacing a Russian word that served as a conditioned stimulus with the same word in meaning foreign language, familiar to the subject. It is essential that “neutral” words, i.e.
that is, those for which a conditioned reflex was not formed did not cause reactions. A word that sounded similar, for example, the word “smoke” during a conditioned reflex to the word “house,” evoked the reflex only at first. Very quickly, differentiation was formed in response to such words and they ceased to evoke conditioned reflexes.
Between different areas The cerebral cortex and the centers involved in the acts of reading and writing also form connections during the learning process.
That is why, after developing a conditioned reflex to the sound of a bell, the inscription “bell” evokes a conditioned reflex reaction in a person who can read.
Speech signals in experiments on humans can be successfully used as reinforcement of a conditioned stimulus.
For this purpose, a conditioned stimulus, for example, the sound of a bell, is accompanied by a verbal instruction - an order: “press the key”, “stand up”, “pull your hand away”, etc. As a result of a number of combinations of the conditioned stimulus with verbal instructions, (in our example - to the sound of a bell) is a conditioned reflex, the nature of which corresponds to the instructions.
The word is a powerful reinforcer, on the basis of which very strong conditioned reflexes can be formed.
First and second signaling systems inseparable from each other. A person has all perceptions and ideas and most of sensations are verbally designated. It follows from this that the excitations of the first signal system, caused by specific signals from objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, are transmitted to the second signal system.
Separate functioning of the first signaling system without the participation of the second (except in cases of pathology) is possible only in a child before he has mastered speech.
REALITY SIGNALING SYSTEMS. SPEECH DEVELOPMENT
Based on innate and acquired functions during ontogenesis, the cortex of the large hemispheres ensures the perfect organization of the behavior of the organism. In humans, 1/3 of the entire surface of the cortex belongs to those zones that have acquired specific functions: speech, writing, intellect, etc.
The first reality signaling system- a system of conditioned reflex connections formed in the cerebral cortex when receptors are exposed to specific, sensory (figurative) stimuli emanating from the external and internal environment.
This signaling system of reality is characteristic of both animals and humans. In animals, it is the only system that provides adaptation processes to changing environmental conditions. Due to a person’s social lifestyle and joint work activity, a person has formed, as Pavlov put it, an “extraordinary increase” in GNI - the second signaling system of reality. This concept was put forward by I.
P. Pavlov (1932) to determine the fundamental differences in the functioning of the brain of animals and humans.
Second Reality Signal System- characteristic only of man, special shape higher nervous activity, a system of conditioned reflexes to speech, verbal signals (pronounced, audible and visible).
Man, unlike animals, has the ability to summarize in words countless signals of the first signaling system (concretely shaped stimuli - visual, auditory, etc.).
d.); in this case, the word, in the words of I. P. Pavlov, becomes signal signals. Thus, unlike animals, which only have concrete sensory thinking based on the first signal system, a person is also capable of abstract-logical thinking based on the second signaling system. Ability to generalize reflection of phenomena
And objects provided a person with an unlimited opportunity for orientation in the surrounding world.
The development of civilization became possible thanks to the formation of the second signaling system, without which a person is not able to transmit knowledge or create art and science.
Oral and written speech
Man rose to the highest stage of evolution thanks to deep analysis and synthesis of their “manual” actions and speech movements.
Speech motor analysis and synthesis, according to I. P. Pavlov, constitutes the “basal component” of human analysis and synthesis.
Sound speech as the ability to sign-symbolically reflect objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, one’s own states using different levels of generalization is a unique human ability.
Speech unites many specific phenomena and events into an abstract concept that generalizes them, expressed in words, and easily transmitted to each other.
Oral speech allows people to communicate directly, written speech allows them to accumulate knowledge, mental speech allows them to think and create, thanks to this a person is able to intelligently plan their activities, which animals cannot do.
Functions of speech
Speech is one of the most complex human functions.
There are three main functions of speech: communicative, regulating and programming.
Communication function is the implementation of communication between people using language. The communicative function includes the function of communication and encouragement to action. When communicating, a person points to an object or expresses his opinions on some issue. The motivating power of speech depends on its emotional expressiveness. Through the knowledge accumulated by humanity and recorded in oral and written speech, a person is connected with the past and the future.
Language is a certain system of signs and rules for their formation.
A person masters a language as a result of learning. What language he learns as his native language depends on the environment in which he lives and the conditions of his upbringing. There is a critical period for language acquisition: after 10 years, the ability to develop the neural networks necessary to build a speech center is lost.
Regulatory function speech is realized in higher mental functions - conscious forms of mental activity.
The concept of higher mental function was introduced by L.
Teaching of I.P. Pavlova about the first and second signal systems.
Vygotsky and developed by A. R. Luria. Distinctive feature higher mental functions is their voluntary nature.
Initially highest mental function is implemented as a form of interaction between people, an adult and a child. One person regulates the behavior of another with the help of special stimuli (“signs”), including
Speech matters the most.
By applying to one's own behavior incentives that were originally used to regulate the behavior of other people, a person masters his own behavior.
Programming function speech consists in constructing semantic schemes of speech utterances, grammatical structures of sentences, in the transition from intent to an external, detailed utterance. This process is based on internal programming, which is carried out using internal speech*. Internal programming is necessary not only for preparing a speech utterance, but also for building the most various movements and actions.
The programming function of speech is disrupted with lesions in the anterior parts of the speech zones: the posterior frontal and premotor parts of the left hemisphere.
Speech centers
Among the cortical areas responsible for speech, the most important are Wernicke Center(located on the left temporal lobe brain) and Broca's center(located in the lower part of the left frontal lobe of the brain).
Wernicke's center is also called the auditory center; damage to it leads to impaired perception of words, i.e. verbal deafness- a person hears everything, “but does not understand speech. He does not understand the words that he himself pronounces. As a result, his own speech does not make sense.
Broca's center represents the motor center of speech; when it is destroyed, it is disrupted speech articulation. A person understands everything he hears, but he himself is not able to utter a single word.
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In the first signaling system, all forms of behavior are based on direct perception of reality and reactions in response to immediate (natural) stimuli. A person perceives the outside world based on the activity of the first signaling system. Consequently, the analysis and synthesis of specific signals, objects and phenomena of the external world that make up the first signal system are common to animals and humans.
In the process of human development, an “extraordinary increase” in the mechanisms of brain function appeared. This is the second signaling system of reality, the specific stimulus of which is a word with an inherent meaning, a word that denotes objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. By the second signal system of reality, I.P. Pavlov understood the nervous processes that arise in the cerebral hemispheres as a result of the perception of signals from the surrounding world in the form of speech designations of objects and phenomena of nature and society. The word is perceived by a person as heard ( auditory analyzer), as written ( visual analyzer) or as spoken (motor analyzer). In all cases, these stimuli are united by the meaning of the word. Words acquire meaning as a result of the emergence of a strong connection in the cerebral cortex between the excitation centers that arise under the influence of specific objects in the surrounding world, and the excitation centers that arise when spoken aloud, denoting specific objects or actions. As a result of the formation of such connections, words can replace a specific environmental stimulus and become its symbol.
The emergence of the second signaling system introduced a new principle into the activity of the human brain. The word, as a signal of signals, makes it possible to escape from specific objects and phenomena. The development of verbal signaling has made generalization and distraction possible, which is expressed in phenomena characteristic of humans - thinking and concepts.
The ability to think through abstract (abstract) images, concepts expressed in spoken or written words has made possible occurrence abstract generalized thinking.
So, the second human signaling system is the basis of purely human verbal-logical thinking, the basis for the formation of knowledge about the world around us through verbal abstractions and the basis of human consciousness.
In every human behavioral act, the participation of three types of interneuron connections is revealed: 1) unconditioned reflex; 2) temporary connections of the first signaling system; 3) temporary connections of the second signaling system. Analysis physiological mechanisms human behavior shows that it is the result joint activities both signaling systems, subcortical and brainstem formations.
Second signaling system as a higher regulator human behavior prevails over the first and to some extent suppresses it. At the same time, the first signaling system to a certain extent determines the activity of the second.
Both signaling systems (the states of which are determined by the function of the cerebral cortex as a whole) are closely related to the activity of subcortical centers. A person can voluntarily inhibit his unconditioned reflex reactions, restrain many manifestations of instincts and emotions. It can suppress defensive (in response to painful stimuli), food, and sexual reflexes. At the same time, the subcortical nuclei, nuclei brain stem and the reticular formation are sources of impulses that maintain the normal tone of the cerebral cortex.
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