Tyrannosaurus - this monster is called the brightest representative of the tyrannosauroid family. It disappeared from the face of our planet faster than most other dinosaurs, having lived for several million years at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Description of the Tyrannosaurus
The generic name Tyrannosaurus comes from the Greek roots τύραννος (tyrant) + σαῦρος (lizard). Tyrannosaurus, which lived in the United States and Canada, belongs to the order Saurian and represents the only species Tyrannosaurus rex (from rex “king, king”).
Appearance
Tyrannosaurus is considered perhaps the largest predator during the existence of the Earth - it was almost twice as long and heavier.
Body and limbs
The complete skeleton of a Tyrannosaurus rex contains 299 bones, 58 of which are in the skull. Most of the bones of the skeleton were hollow, which had little effect on their strength, but reduced weight, compensating for the extreme bulkiness of the beast. The neck, like other theropods, had S-shape, but was short and thick to support a massive head. The spine included:
- 10 neck;
- a dozen breasts;
- five sacral;
- 4 dozen caudal vertebrae.
Interesting! Tyrannosaurus had an elongated massive tail, which acted as a balancer, which had to balance the heavy body and heavy head.
The forelimbs, armed with a pair of clawed fingers, seemed underdeveloped and were inferior in size to the hind limbs, which were unusually powerful and long. The hind limbs ended in three strong fingers, where strong curved claws grew.
Skull and teeth
One and a half meters, or more precisely 1.53 m - this is the length of the largest known complete tyrannosaurus skull at the disposal of paleontologists. The bone frame is surprising not so much in size as in its shape (different from other theropods) - it is widened at the back, but noticeably narrowed in the front. This means that the lizard’s gaze was directed not to the side, but forward, which indicates its good binocular vision.
Another feature indicates a developed sense of smell - the large olfactory lobes of the nose, somewhat reminiscent of the structure of the nose in modern feathered scavengers, for example.
Tyrannosaurus rex grip thanks to the U-shaped bend upper jaw, was more noticeable than the bites of carnivorous dinosaurs (with a V-shaped bend) not included in the tyrannosaurid family. The U-shape increased the pressure of the front teeth and made it possible to tear off solid pieces of meat with bones from the carcass.
The lizard's teeth had different configurations and different functions, which in zoology is usually called heterodontism. The teeth growing in the upper jaw exceeded the lower teeth in height, with the exception of those located in the back.
Fact! To date, the largest Tyrannosaurus rex tooth found is one that measures 12 inches (30.5 cm) from root (inclusive) to tip.
Teeth of the anterior side of the upper jaw:
- resembled daggers;
- tightly closed together;
- curved inward;
- had reinforcing ridges.
Thanks to these features, the teeth held tightly and rarely broke when the tyrannosaurus rex tore its prey. The remaining teeth, similar in shape to bananas, were even stronger and more massive. They were also equipped with reinforcing ridges, but differed from chisel-shaped ones in their wider spacing.
Lips
The hypothesis about the lips of carnivorous dinosaurs was voiced by Robert Reisch. He suggested that the teeth of predators covered their lips, which moisturized and protected the former from destruction. According to Reisch, the tyrannosaurus lived on land and could not do without lips, unlike crocodiles that live in water.
Reisch's theory was questioned by his US colleagues led by Thomas Carr, who published a description of Daspletosaurus horneri (a new species of tyrannosaurid). The researchers emphasized that the lips do not fit at all with its muzzle, which is covered with flat scales right down to the teeth.
Important! Daspletosaurus did without lips, in place of which there were large scales with sensitive receptors, like those of modern crocodiles. Daspletosaurus's teeth did not require lips, just like the teeth of other theropods, including Tyrannosaurus rex.
Paleogeneticists are confident that the presence of lips would have been more harmful to the tyrannosaurus than to the daspletosaurus - this would have been an additional vulnerable zone during fights with rivals.
Plumage
The soft tissues of the tyrannosaurus, poorly represented by remains, have clearly not been studied enough (in comparison with its skeletons). For this reason, scientists still doubt whether it had plumage, and if so, how dense and on what parts of the body.
Some paleogeneticists came to the conclusion that the tyrant lizard was covered with thread-like feathers, akin to hair. This hair was most likely present in juvenile/young animals, but fell out as they grew older. Other scientists believe that the plumage of Tyrannosaurus rex was partial, with feathered areas interspersed with scaly areas. According to one version, feathers could be observed on the back.
Tyrannosaurus Rex Dimensions
Tyrannosaurus rex is recognized as one of the largest theropods, as well as largest species in the tyrannosaurid family. Already the first fossils found (1905) suggested that Tyrannosaurus grew to 8–11 m, surpassing Megalosaurus and Allosaurus, whose length did not exceed 9 meters. True, among the tyrannosauroids there were dinosaurs larger than Tyrannosaurus rex - such as Gigantosaurus and Spinosaurus.
Fact! In 1990, the skeleton of a tyrannosaurus was brought to light, after reconstruction it was named Sue, with very impressive parameters: 4 m high to the hip with a total length of 12.3 m and a mass of about 9.5 tons. However, a little later, paleontologists found bone fragments, which (judging by their size) could belong to tyrannosaurs larger than Sue.
Thus, in 2006, the University of Montana announced the possession of the most voluminous tyrannosaurus skull found back in the 1960s. After restoring the destroyed skull, scientists stated that it was longer than Sue’s skull by more than a decimeter (1.53 versus 1.41 m), and the maximum opening of the jaws was 1.5 m.
A couple more fossils have been described (a foot bone and the front part of the upper jaw), which, according to calculations, could belong to two tyrannosaurs, 14.5 and 15.3 m long, each of which weighed at least 14 tons. Further research conducted by Phil Curry showed that calculating the length of a lizard cannot be done based on the size of scattered bones, since each individual has individual proportions.
Lifestyle, behavior
Tyrannosaurus walked with its body parallel to the ground, but with its tail raised slightly to balance its heavy head. Despite the developed leg muscles, the tyrant lizard could not run faster than 29 km/h. This speed was obtained from a computer simulation of the running of a tyrannosaurus, carried out in 2007.
Faster running threatened the predator with falls, associated with significant injuries and sometimes death. Even when chasing prey, the tyrannosaurus observed reasonable caution, maneuvering between hummocks and holes, so as not to fall down from the height of its gigantic height. Once on the ground, the tyrannosaurus (not seriously injured) tried to rise, leaning on its front paws. At least, this is the role Paul Newman assigned to the forelimbs of the lizard.
This is interesting! Tyrannosaurus was an extremely sensitive animal: in this it was helped by a sense of smell that was more acute than that of a dog (it could smell blood several kilometers away).
The pads on the paws also helped to always be on guard, receiving the vibrations of the earth and transmitting them upward, along the skeleton to inner ear. Tyrannosaurus had an individual territory, marking boundaries, and did not go beyond its boundaries.
Tyrannosaurus, like many dinosaurs, was considered a cold-blooded animal for quite a long time, and this hypothesis was abandoned only in the late 1960s thanks to John Ostrom and Robert Bakker. Paleontologists said that Tyrannosaurus rex led an active lifestyle and was warm-blooded.
This theory is confirmed, in particular, by its rapid growth rate, comparable to the growth dynamics of mammals/birds. The growth curve of tyrannosaurs is S-shaped, with a rapid increase in mass observed at about 14 years of age (this age corresponds to a weight of 1.8 tons). During the accelerated growth phase, the lizard gained 600 kg annually for 4 years, slowing down the weight gain upon reaching 18 years.
Some paleontologists still doubt that Tyrannosaurus rex was entirely warm-blooded, without denying its ability to maintain a constant body temperature. Scientists explain this thermoregulation as a form of mesothermy, which is demonstrated by leatherback sea turtles.
Lifespan
According to paleontologist Gregory S. Paul, tyrannosaurs multiplied quickly and died too early because their lives were full of dangers. Assessing the lifespan of tyrannosaurs and at the same time their growth rate, the researchers studied the remains of several individuals. The smallest specimen, called Jordanian theropod(with an estimated weight of 30 kg). An analysis of its bones showed that the tyrannosaurus was no more than 2 years old at the time of its death.
Fact! The largest find, nicknamed Sue, whose weight was close to 9.5 tons and age was 28 years, looked like a real giant against its background. This period was considered the maximum possible for the Tyrannosaurus rex species.
Sexual dimorphism
Dealing with the difference between the sexes, paleogeneticists paid attention to body types (morphs), identifying two that are characteristic of all types of theropods.
Body types of tyrannosaurs:
- robust – massiveness, developed muscles, strong bones;
- gracile – thin bones, slenderness, less pronounced muscles.
Certain morphological differences between the types served as the basis for dividing tyrannosaurs according to sexual characteristics. Females were classified as robust, taking into account that the pelvis of robust animals was expanded, that is, they most likely laid eggs. It was believed that one of the main morphological features robust lizards is the loss/reduction of the chevron of the first caudal vertebra (this was associated with the release of eggs from the reproductive canal).
In recent years, conclusions about the sexual dimorphism of Tyrannosaurus rex, which were based on the structure of the vertebral chevrons, have been found to be erroneous. Biologists have taken into account that the difference in sexes, in particular in crocodiles, does not affect the reduction of the chevron (research in 2005). In addition, a full-fledged chevron also appeared on the first caudal vertebra, which belonged to an extremely strong individual nicknamed Sue, which means that this feature is characteristic of both body types.
Important! Paleontologists decided that differences in anatomy were caused by the habitat of a particular individual, since remains were found from Saskatchewan to New Mexico, or age-related changes(presumably the old tyrannosaurs were robust).
Having reached a dead end in identifying males/females of the Tyrannosaurus rex species, scientists have, with a high degree of probability, found out gender the only skeleton named B-rex. These remains contained soft fragments that were identified as analogues of medullary tissue (supplying calcium for shell formation) in modern birds.
Medullary tissue is usually present in the bones of females, but in rare cases it also forms in males if they are given estrogens (female reproductive hormones). This is why the B-rex was unconditionally recognized as a female who died during ovulation.
Discovery history
The first fossils of a tyrannosaurus were found by an expedition of the Museum of Natural History (USA), led by Barnum Brown. This happened in 1900 in the state of Wyoming, and a couple of years later a new partial skeleton was discovered in Montana, which took 3 years to process. In 1905, the finds received different species names. The first is Dynamosaurus imperiosus, and the second is Tyrannosaurus rex. True, the very next year the remains from Wyoming were also assigned to the species Tyrannosaurus rex.
Fact! In the winter of 1906, The New York Times informed readers of the discovery of the first tyrannosaurus, whose partial skeleton (including giant bones of the hind legs and pelvis) settled in the hall of the American Museum of Natural History. The skeleton of a large bird was placed between the limbs of the lizard to make it even more impressive.
The first complete skull of a tyrannosaurus was removed only in 1908, and its complete skeleton was mounted in 1915, all in the same Natural History Museum. Paleontologists made a mistake by equipping the monster with three-toed front paws of an Allosaurus, but corrected it after the appearance of the specimen Wankel rex. This specimen, consisting of a 1/2 skeleton (with skull and intact front legs), was excavated from Hell Creek sediments in 1990. The specimen, nicknamed Wankel Rex, died at about 18 years old, and while alive weighed about 6.3 tons with a length of 11.6 m. These were one of the few dinosaur remains where blood molecules were found.
This summer, also in the Hell Creek Formation (South Dakota), not only the largest, but also the most complete (73%) skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex, named after paleontologist Sue Hendrickson, was found. In 1997, the skeleton Sue, whose length was 12.3 m with a skull of 1.4 m, was sold for $7.6 million at auction. The skeleton was acquired by the Field Museum of Natural History, which opened it to the public in 2000 after cleaning and restoration, which took 2 years.
Scull MOR 008, found by W. McManis much earlier than Sue, namely in 1967, but finally restored only in 2006, is famous for its size (1.53 m). Specimen MOR 008 (skull fragments and scattered bones of an adult Tyrannosaurus) is on display at the Museum of the Rockies (Montana).
In 1980, the so-called black beauty was found ( Black Beauty), whose remains were blackened by exposure to minerals. The fossils of the lizard were discovered by Jeff Baker, who saw a huge bone on the river bank while fishing. A year later, the excavations were completed, and Black Beauty moved to the Royal Tyrrell Museum (Canada).
Another tyrannosaurus, named Stan in honor of paleontology enthusiast Stan Sakrison, found in South Dakota in the spring of 1987, but they did not touch it, mistaking it for the remains of a Triceratops. The skeleton was removed only in 1992, having discovered many pathologies:
- broken ribs;
- fused cervical vertebrae (after a fracture);
- holes in the back of the skull from the teeth of a Tyrannosaurus rex.
Z-REX are fossil bones discovered in 1987 by Michael Zimmerschied in South Dakota. At the same site, however, already in 1992, an excellently preserved skull was discovered, which was excavated by Alan and Robert Dietrich.
Remains under the name Bucky, obtained in 1998 from Hell Creek, are notable for the presence of fused fork-shaped clavicles, since the fork is called the link between birds and dinosaurs. T. rex fossils (along with Edmontosaurus and Triceratops) were discovered in the lowlands of Bucky Derflinger's cowboy ranch.
The skull (94% integrity) belonging to the specimen is recognized as one of the most complete tyrannosaurus skulls ever brought to the surface Rees Rex. This skeleton was located in a deep depression on a grassy slope, also in the Hell Creek geological formation (in northeastern Montana).
Range, habitats
The fossils were found in Maastrichtian deposits, revealing that Tyrannosaurus rex lived in the Late Cretaceous period from Canada to the United States (including the states of Texas and New Mexico). Curious specimens of the tyrant lizard were discovered in the northwestern United States in the Hell Creek formation - during the Maastrichtian there were subtropics here, with their excess heat and humidity, where coniferous trees(araucaria and metasequoia) were interspersed with flowering plants.
Important! Judging by the dislocation of the remains, the tyrannosaurus lived in various biotopes - arid and semi-arid plains, swampy areas, as well as on land remote from the sea.
Tyrannosaurs coexisted with herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs, such as:
- duck-billed edmontosaurus;
- Torosaurus;
- Ankylosaurus;
- thescelosaurus;
- Pachycephalosaurus;
- Ornithomimus and Troodon.
Another famous site of Tyrannosaurus rex skeletons is a geological formation in Wyoming that millions of years ago resembled an ecosystem similar to the modern Gulf Coast. The fauna of the formation practically repeated the fauna of Hell Creek, except that instead of Ornithomimus, Struthiomimus lived here, and Leptoceratops (a small representative of Ceratopsians) was also added.
In the southern sectors of its range, Tyrannosaurus rex shared territories with Quetzalcoatlus (a huge pterosaur), Alamosaurus, Edmontosaurus, Torosaurus, and one of the ankylosaurs called Glyptodontopelta. The south of the range was dominated by semi-arid plains that appeared here after the disappearance of the Western Inland Sea.
Tyrannosaurus diet
Tyrannosaurus rex was larger than most carnivorous dinosaurs in its native ecosystem, and is therefore recognized as an apex predator. Each tyrannosaurus preferred to live and hunt alone, strictly in its own area, which amounted to several hundred square kilometers.
From time to time, tyrant lizards wandered into adjacent territory and began to defend their rights to it in fierce skirmishes, often leading to the death of one of the fighters. With this outcome, the winner did not disdain the meat of his relative, but more often pursued other dinosaurs - ceratopsians (torosaurs and triceratops), hadrosaurs (including anatotitans) and even sauropods.
Attention! A protracted debate about whether Tyrannosaurus rex was a true superpredator or a scavenger led to the final conclusion - Tyrannosaurus rex was an opportunistic predator (hunted and ate carrion).
Predator
The following arguments support this thesis:
- the eye sockets are located so that the eyes are directed not to the side, but forward. This binocular vision(with rare exceptions) is observed in predators forced to accurately estimate the distance to the prey;
- marks from the teeth of tyrannosaurs left on other dinosaurs and even representatives of their own species (for example, a healed bite on the scruff of a Triceratops is known);
- large herbivorous dinosaurs that lived at the same time as tyrannosaurs had protective shields/plates on their backs. This indirectly indicates the threat of attack from giant predators such as Tyrannosaurus rex.
Paleontologists are confident that the lizard attacked the intended object from an ambush, overtaking it with one powerful jerk. Due to its considerable mass and low speed, it was unlikely to be capable of a prolonged pursuit.
The tyrannosaurus chose mostly weakened animals as victims - sick, elderly or very young. He was most likely afraid of adults, since some herbivorous dinosaurs (ankylosaurus or triceratops) could fend for themselves. Scientists admit that the tyrannosaurus, taking advantage of its size and power, took prey from smaller predators.
Scavenger
This version is based on other facts:
- the keen sense of smell of a tyrannosaurus, provided with many olfactory receptors, like those of scavenger birds;
- strong and long (20–30 cm) teeth, intended not so much for killing prey, but for crushing bones and extracting their contents, including bone marrow;
- low speed of movement of the lizard: it did not run so much as walk, which is why chasing more maneuverable animals lost its meaning. It was easier to find carrion.
Defending the hypothesis about the predominance of carrion in the diet of the lizard, paleontologists from China studied humerus saurolophus, which was gnawed by a representative of the tyrannosaurid family. After inspecting the damage bone tissue, scientists believed they were applied as the carcass began to decompose.
Bite force
It was thanks to her that the tyrannosaurus easily crushed the bones of large animals and tore apart their carcasses, getting to mineral salts, as well as bone marrow, which remained inaccessible to small carnivorous dinosaurs.
Interesting! The bite force of Tyrannosaurus rex was far superior to both extinct and living predators. This conclusion was made after a series of special experiments in 2012 by Peter Falkingham and Carl Bates.
Paleontologists examined the tooth marks on the bones of Triceratops and made calculations that showed that the back teeth of an adult Tyrannosaurus closed with a force of 35–37 kilonewtons. This is 15 times more than maximum strength the bite of an African lion is 7 times greater than the possible bite force of an Allosaurus and 3.5 times greater than the bite force of the crowned record holder - the Australian saltwater crocodile.
French Guiana is the smallest country in terms of territory on the mainland. Its population is 185,000 people. It borders on two countries - in the west and in the east and south of the country. There is wide access to the Atlantic Ocean. The government of French Guiana is organized as an overseas department.
It is not the capital, but the city of Cayenne serves as the administrative center. In fact, the real capital of French Guiana is, despite the large geographical distances. The official language of the country is French, and the official currency is, of course, the euro. 
Relief. French Guiana flat in the northern part of the country and hilly in the southern and central parts. There are no high mountains or mountain ranges here. Only a few small mountain elevations are found. The highest point in the country is Mount Bellevue, which is located in the central part of the country and reaches only 851 meters. The flat area is cut through by a very dense river network.
Nature. Almost the entire territory of French Guiana is covered with dense and impenetrable equatorial forests. Daily rainfall has created some of the richest jungle plant and animal species in the entire world. Jaguars, tapirs, toucans, dozens of species of monkeys and many, many other species live here undisturbed. The environment of French Guiana is very clean and preserved. In this regard, it could serve as an example for many other countries. In addition to dense forests, French Guiana has very beautiful and wild beaches. Much of the coast, however, is covered with mangrove forests, as is the case in Suriname. Mangrove forests are a very important living environment for large quantity animal species.
Climate. French Guiana is hot and humid with very heavy, almost daily rainfall throughout the year. Approximately 3800 mm falls per year. As in Guyana and Suriname, here daytime temperatures also range from 29 to 32-33°C, and at night around 23°C. As you can see, the temperature amplitude is very small, which is typical for the equatorial climate zone. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the first half of the year, with maximum precipitation in May. The driest (if you can call it dry) September is when about 30 millimeters of rain falls. As in most places in the equatorial climate zone, it is always partly cloudy here, and the air, which is felt throughout the year, is one of the most specific features of the local climate.
Economy French Guiana relies mainly on the mining and processing of gold, bauxite, timber and agriculture. Heat-loving and moisture-loving crops such as rice, cassava, sugar cane, bananas and others are grown. The traditional Caribbean drink, rum, is produced from sugar cane. The main cultivated lands are located near the largest cities of Cayenne and Kuri on the Atlantic coast. French Guiana is part of France and as such has high level life of the local population, which is very different from most countries in the region. However, a high standard of living does not mean that French Guiana is a significant economic force. The country is very sparsely populated and large areas of it are wild and unspoiled, without any infrastructure. It is one of the continent's most underdeveloped countries. South America. The main transport routes are located in the coastal regions, where the country's large cities are located. However, French Guiana has many advantages as an overseas department of France. The space center, which is located ten kilometers west of the city of Kourou, plays a very important role for French Guiana. This location was chosen to launch spacecraft into space due to its proximity to. From a tourism perspective, French Guiana has potential for development. The combination of a warm climate, dense jungle and wild beaches can be very beneficial for this sparsely populated country.
Cities. Cities in French Guiana are small and concentrated along the coast. They form a mini agglomeration, as they are located at a short distance from each other. The largest 
The city is the administrative center of Cayenne, home to about 70,000 people or less than half the country's population. The second largest city of Kourou is located about 40 kilometers west of Cayenne. Between the two cities there are small rural villages. In the interior of the country there are some small towns mainly in the border areas, especially with Suriname.
Guiana French (Guyane Française), a country in the north-east. South America. Possession of France; since 1946 it has been an “overseas department” of France. It borders on the west with Suriname, on the south and east with Brazil, on the north and northeast. washed by the Atlantic Ocean. Area 91 thousand km 2
. Population 48 thousand people (1969). Administration is carried out by a prefect appointed by the French government; There is an elected body - the General Council, elected by the population for 6 years. In the French Parliament, G. has 1 deputy each in the Senate and in National Assembly. The administrative center is the city of Cayenne. IN administratively divided into 2 districts.
═ Nature. G. is located on the north-east. Guiana Plateau. The surface is mainly a low plain with individual island dome-shaped massifs (up to 850 m high), framed in the north by a narrow coastal accumulative lowland. Gold deposits in a thick weathering crust ≈ bauxite. The climate is subequatorial, hot and humid. Average monthly temperatures in Cayenne are 28≈29°C. Precipitation 3210 mm per year, winter-spring maximum; autumn is dry. The river network is dense, the rivers are deep, but have rapids; navigable only at the mouths. The largest are border rivers. Maroni and Oyapoki. Dense evergreen forests (gile) with valuable tree species; in the north and in the central part, in depressions leeward (relative to the humid northeastern trade wind), there are patches of tall grass savannas. The forests are inhabited by monkeys, tapir, jaguar, lobby (species guinea pig), snakes, many birds and insects. The rivers abound with fish; There are a lot of shrimps off the coast.
═ E. N. Lukashova.
═ Population. Up to 80% of the population are blacks and mulattoes (Creoles). About 2 thousand of them are ≈ so-called. forest blacks, descendants of fugitive slaves, live in the forests of the interior of the country. Indians (up to 10% of the population) survived only in remote forest areas. The rest are Europeans (mainly French) and people from Asia (Chinese, etc.). The official language is French. The majority of believers are Catholics; Forest Negroes and Indians retained remnants of their ancient beliefs and partially their languages. The official calendar is Gregorian (see. Calendar).
═ Population growth for 1963–69 averaged 2.3% per year. Average density 0.5 people per 1 km 2
, in the coastal part, where over 90% of the population is concentrated, ≈ about 3 people per 1 km 2
. The economically active population is 18 thousand people, of which 30% are employed in agriculture (1968). Urban population over 50%. The largest city is Cayenne (24.5 thousand inhabitants in 1967), other cities are Kourou, Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni.
═ Historical reference
. The first French colonists appeared on the territory of modern Greece in 1604. In the first half of the 17th century. they founded the city of Cayenne. In the 17th ≈ early 19th centuries. for the possession of G. there was a struggle between the Dutch, the British and the French, who alternately owned this territory. The power of the French in Germany was finally established in 1817.
═ From the end of the 17th century. A plantation economy began to develop, based on the exploitation of black slaves exported from Africa. In 1794, slavery was abolished, but soon, in the first years of the 19th century, it was restored (finally eliminated in 1848). Since the Great French Revolution, Germany was turned into a place of exile (“dry guillotine”). After the fall of the Paris Commune in 1871, many communards were exiled here.
═ In 1946, Germany received the status of an “overseas department” of France. The main demand of the progressive forces of Guiana, united in the parties Union du Peuple Guyanais (founded in 1958), the Guiana Socialist Party (Parti Socialiste Guyanais), and others, is the granting of autonomy to the Guianese people. In addition to local parties, in Guinea there are branches of some French parties, the Union of Democrats in Defense of the Republic (Union des démocrates pour la République), and others.
═ S. S. Batogov.
═
Economy. The city is a backward agricultural country. Less than 0.1% of the territory is cultivated (mainly on the coast), 0.6% under meadows and pastures, 95% under forests, and about 4.4% under other lands. Main agricultural plantation crops: sugar cane (harvest 3 thousand tons in 1968), bananas (1 thousand tons), cocoa. Plantings of rice (harvest 20 tons in 1968), corn (85 tons), cassava (6 thousand tons), vegetables. Livestock farming does not meet the country's meat needs. In 1967/68 there were 2 thousand heads of cattle and 6 thousand pigs.
═ Gold mining (159 kg in 1968), bauxite, electricity production 20.3 million kWh (1968). Logging (about 100 thousand m in 1968). Marine fisheries (3.5 thousand tons of fish and shrimp in 1968). production of rum, rose essence. Canning and freezing shrimp. There are 272 km of highways. Most of the transportation goes according to will. Seaport ≈ Cayenne; A deep-water port is being built (1971) in Mayuri. Exports (1968) amounted to 17 million francs, imports 256 million francs. Main export goods: gold, timber, rum, shrimp. Imports are dominated by food, fuel, fabrics, building materials, equipment and rolled products. Foreign trade is carried out with France (3/4 of imports by value), Suriname, the countries of the French West Indies (mainly Martinique, Guadeloupe) and the USA. The monetary unit is the French franc.
═ Education. The public education system is based on French legislation. Training is conducted in French. The age of compulsory education is from 6 to 14 years. Primary school 5 years. Duration of study in high school is 4 years in an incomplete school (college) and 7 years in a full school (lyceum). Vocational training is carried out mainly on the basis of primary school. There are no higher or secondary specialized educational institutions. In the 1967/68 academic year, 7.2 thousand students studied in primary schools, ≈ 1.5 thousand people in secondary schools, and vocational schools educational institutions≈ 786 people In Cayenne there is a small library and museum, a research institute named after. Pasteur, who deals with tropical diseases. In 1968, in the Kourou region, French specialists completed the construction of the largest space research center.
═ V. Z. Klepikov.
═ Lit.: Guiana. Guyana. French Guiana, Suriname, M., 1969.
- - 1. - from 1831 British, colony in the north-east. South coast America. On May 26, 1966, the independent state of Guyana was proclaimed. First stamps issue. in 1850. First issue. is one of the greatest rarities...
- - ...
Large philatelic dictionary
- - - b. French colony in the north-east South coast America. Since 1946 - overseas department of France. The first own brands issue. in 1886, until 1892 used...
Large philatelic dictionary
- - ...
- - French, possession of France in the north-east. South America. In the past - the general name of three adjacent territories, possessions of Great Britain, the Netherlands and France in the north-east. South America...
Geographical encyclopedia
- - Guiana, French territory of the Afars and Issa, French Coast...
Geographical encyclopedia
- - see Guiana...
- - see French Guiana...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron
- - I British Guiana, the name of the former colony of Great Britain in the north of South America. Since 1966, the independent state of Guyana. II Dutch Guiana, a colony of the Netherlands in the north of South America...
- - British Guiana, the name of the former colony of Great Britain in the north of South America. Since 1966, the independent state of Guyana...
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- - Dutch Guiana, a colony of the Netherlands in the north of South America; see Suriname...
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- - territory in North America. Occupies most Guiana Highlands. Colonies of Great Britain, the Netherlands and France were located here...
Collier's Encyclopedia
- - Dutch - until 1975 it was called the territory of the state of Suriname...
- - French GUIANA - possession of France in the northeast of South. America. 91 thousand km². population 128 thousand people, mainly Creoles. Administrative center and main sea port- Cayenne...
- - ...
Synonym dictionary
- - noun, number of synonyms: 3 Guiana country Suriname...
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In the eastern part of South America there is an overseas department (administrative unit) of France - Guiana. In our article we will discuss exactly this place. Previously, this territory, which now covers an area of 90 thousand km², was called “French Guiana”.
The reason for this clarification was that there once were five colonies under the general name "Guiana": Spanish, British, Dutch, Portuguese and French. After a certain time, the Spanish colony became the east of Venezuela. Since 1966, British Guiana has become the independent state of Guyana.
The Netherlands is now officially called the Republic of Suriname. And Portuguese nowadays is the north of Brazil.
Geographical location of the country
French Guiana is located in such a way that it is washed from the north by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. And its mainland is located between Brazil and Suriname.
Story
The first Europeans to land on the territory of the future overseas department of the French Republic were Spanish sailors in 1499. After 105 years, French settlers began to populate it. In 1635, a fortification was founded, around which the administrative center was formed - the city of Cayenne.
Since the 17th century and for the next hundred years, Guiana was under the rule of Great Britain and the Netherlands. At the beginning of the 19th century (1817), France officially secured this territory.
As a result of the unfavorable tropical climate, there were few people willing to move to South America. Therefore, France began importing black slaves from the African continent en masse.
During the years of the French Revolution and subsequent years, a struggle began in Guiana for the abolition of the working and living conditions of slaves as for the main part of the population. According to documents, such labor was officially abolished in the department in 1848. From the end of the 18th century until the end of hostilities in World War II, the French government used Guiana as a place of forced heavy work for state political criminals. Since 1946, Guiana has become an overseas department of France.
Capital - Cayenne
What is the name of the capital of French Guiana? Why is she interesting? More on this later in the article. The city of Cayenne, which is more than 350 years old, is considered the capital of French Guiana. About 50 thousand indigenous people live there (mostly blacks and mulattoes).
Locality located on a small peninsula between the Cayenne River (a 50 km long river) and the main body of water - Mahuri, more than 170 km long.
The main attractions are located on the territory of the main city of the French department. Place de Grenoble, which is located in the western part of the capital, is very popular among tourists in Guiana. The peculiarity of this area of the city is that it contains the main attractions of the city.
Lusso channel
In the central part of the city of Cayenne, not far from the fish market, is the Lusso Canal - the city's main waterway.
Construction began in 1777. For four years it was dug by hand by Guiana prisoners.
Now the canal, built according to the design of the architect Sirdey, is a favorite vacation spot for residents and guests of the city.
On the banks of the Lusso Canal, tourists pay attention to the house in which the family of the philanthropist (a person involved in charity) Alexandre Franconi lived.
The building now houses the Departmental Franconi Museum. It was founded in 1901. Tourists can view exhibitions related to the history of the department, household items of past centuries and other diverse museum exhibitions.
Place de Palmistes
The main square of the capital and the pride of the indigenous people is de Palmistes. It got its name due to the large number of palm trees planted throughout its territory. Previously, this place was a pasture for livestock.
In the middle of the 19th century, by decision of the city leadership, palm trees were planted along the entire perimeter of the future city square. At the same time, the construction of urban infrastructure buildings began. In 1957, a majestic arch was erected. It was built in honor of the first governor of Cayenne, Felix Eboue.
Now tourists can visit a variety of cafes and restaurants, located surrounded by 25-meter palm trees and taste national cuisine.
Museum of Guiana Culture
On Madame Payet Street, a museum of Guianan culture was opened in 1998, where guests of the city can view exhibitions related to the culture of different ethnic groups that once inhabited the territory of Guiana. Visitors are given the opportunity to examine household items of those times. National costumes and various exhibits related to religious rites. There is a garden on the museum grounds. There you can see all kinds of medicinal plants that grow in South America.
Beach areas of Cayenne
In addition to visiting the main attractions, tourists can pay attention to beach holiday on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.
In the village of Remy-Montjoly (10 km from Cayenne) there is, according to city guests, the most beautiful area. Here, in addition to active recreation among the palm trees, you can explore the ruins of a small 18th-century fort and an old cane sugar factory.
Hates Beach is located on the Marconi River (Avala-Yalimapo commune). Tourists from many countries around the world seek to visit this area. Hates became popular thanks to the leatherback turtles living in this area, which are more than two meters long and weigh 400 kg. They are considered the largest of all living sea turtles. Vacationers can swim in the clear river water. They also have the opportunity to swim with these peace-loving turtles, which appeared on the planet 200 million years ago.
At a distance of 50 km from Cayenne between the cities of Sinnamary and Kourou there is a landmark of the late 20th century. It is officially called the Guiana Space Center.
In 1964, the government was provided with fourteen designs for the location of the cosmodrome. Then it was decided to begin construction near the city of Kourou (French Guiana).
This is explained by the fact that this area is located at a distance of 500 km from conditional line sections of the earth's surface by a plane passing through the center of the earth (equator).
Therefore, this territory is favorable for launching satellites into orbit and launch vehicles. At the same time, they develop additional speed, making it easier for them to push off from the Earth.
Thus, in French Guiana, the spaceport, built in 1968, has become one of the most versatile centers. It attracts all space centers of other countries of the world to cooperate.
In 1975, the International Space Agency (ESA) was formed. The government then proposed using the launch pads of the Guiana Spaceport in Kourou in French Guiana. Currently, the main sites used to launch spacecraft are owned by ESA.
Since 2007, in collaboration with Russian specialists, construction of a launch pad for Soyuz-2 rockets began on the territory of the cosmodrome, which occupies an area of 20x60 km. The first launch of the Russian device took place in October 2011. In 2017, Russia launched the Soyuz ST-A launch vehicle with the SES-15 spacecraft from the Guiana Cosmodrome.
The sparsely populated territory of Guiana (more than 90% of the territory is covered with forests), the absence of hurricanes and earthquakes are important factor startup safety.
Flag of Guiana
The overseas department of Guiana belongs to the French Republic. Therefore, it is officially used as the state symbol of the country.
In some cases, another one is used. This flag of French Guiana is approved by the legislature. It is a rectangular panel with a five-pointed star yellow color in areas of blue and green, located on two wavy lines.
Each color has its own specific symbolism. Blue symbolizes the emergence of modern technologies on the territory of the department. The green color symbolizes the vegetation and richness of the region's forests, while the yellow symbolizes valuable minerals and natural gold reserves. Two are symbolic of a large number of rivers.
Now let's look at some facts about this overseas department:
- The territory of French Guiana has many mineral resources. But only gold, tantalum and bauxite are mined here.
- French Guiana is the only non-European territory that is part of the European Union.
- The main agricultural crop is rice, from which rum and rice essence are made.
- French Guiana is officially considered a department of France. But despite this, a Schengen visa is not a valid document here. A tourist from Russia needs to get a separate one. To obtain a visa to French Guiana, you should contact the consulate.
- When entering Guiana, you must present a yellow fever vaccination certificate at customs.
Conclusion
Tourists traveling through French Guiana note that this territory is amazing in its beauty and originality. And the goodwill and sincerity of the people make you want to come back here again.
On the world map MapJanuary 16-19, 2013
There are three Guianas in northeastern South America. One of them was called British Guiana, now it is Guyana, they speak English there. The second was called Dutch Guiana, now it is Suriname, they speak Dutch there. And the third is French Guiana. Overseas region and department of France.
There are three Guianas on the northeast coast of South America. One of them was formerly known as British Guiana and is now called Guyana, its population speaks English. The second was formerly known as Dutch Guiana and is now called Suriname, its population speaks Dutch. And the third is French Guiana, an overseas department of France.
French Guiana is not even included in some lists of countries, because it is simply considered France. Most people are unaware that the longest border of the French Republic (673 kilometers) is with Brazil (50 kilometers longer than the Franco-Spanish border).
Some lists of world countries omit French Guiana entirely and consider it simply a part of France. Most people have no idea that the French Republic’s longest border (673 kilometers) is with Brazil (50 kilometers longer than the French—Spanish border).
Some details here are similar to those in France and its overseas regions. The same mailboxes for receiving letters.
Some details here are the same as in France and its overseas departments. The same mailboxes for receiving mail.
The same mailboxes for sending letters.
The same mailboxes for sending mail.
The same signs “radar is working”.
The same speed camera signs.
The same toilets are on the streets.
The same public restrooms in the streets.
The same boards with information for citizens.
The same displays with information for residents.
This is where the similarities end. Guiana is the most un-French of all things French.
But the similarities end there. Guiana is the least French of anything French.
The local black population was lazy and did not care about the beauty of the streets. Mostly Chinese work here. As in neighboring Suriname, the Chinese own almost all the shops and restaurants.
The local black population is lazy and couldn’t care less about the appearance of the streets. Most of the workforce is Chinese. Like in neighboring Surinam, the Chinese own almost all the shops and restaurants.
Once upon a time I decided to compare slums in different countries of the world. One of them was France. Using Google panoramas, I tried to find something terrible in France. He poked into the most provincial cities, drove into the most peripheral alleys. And everywhere I found only places in which I was ready to spend the rest of my life. Everything is well-groomed, thoughtful, cozy and neat, even in the backyards of the sawmills. It’s a pity that I didn’t think to point to French Guiana. Every corner here is a garbage dump.
I once decided to compare the slums in various countries of the world. One of the countries was France. Using Street View in Google Maps, I tried to find something horrible in France. I zoomed in on the most provincial towns, I peered into alleys in remote districts—and no matter where I looked, I found only places where I’d gladly spend the rest of my life. Absolutely everything is well kept and thought out, cozy and tidy, down to the back yards of sawmills. It’s a shame I didn’t think of clicking on French Guiana. Here, every corner is a dump.
Cayenne
Cayenne
On the world map Map
The only interesting feature here is the amazing architecture of the buildings. Something like a pagoda.
The only interesting feature here is the amazing architecture of the buildings. They vaguely resemble pagodas.
Pedestrian traffic light.
A pedestrian traffic light.
Car traffic light.
A vehicle light.
A monument in the form of giant broken shackles commemorating emancipation from slavery. It’s made of plastic and sounds very funny if you tap on it (like the monuments and manhole covers in Ulyanovsk).
Double mailbox.
A double mailbox.
Street sign.
Outstanding rear end local resident.
The protruding rear of a local woman.
It's hard to imagine that this is France.
It’s difficult to imagine that this is France.
Kuru
Kourou
On the world map MapKuru is located close to the equator.
Kourou is located close to the Equator.
What are the benefits of being close to the equator?
And what’s so useful about being close to the Equator?
That's right, it's easier to fly into space from here.
That's right, it's easier to fly into space.
Therefore, there is the highest concentration of inscriptions in Russian in all of France.
That’s why this place has the highest concentration of Russian inscriptions in all of France.
Do not push during maneuvers. Packing slip No. 5/26, Gross 9.8 T., Net.
There is a cosmodrome in Kourou. From here, various rockets are launched into space - both European and Russian.
Kourou is the site of a spaceport. Various rockets—both European and Russian ones—are launched into space from here.
And such and such.
All sorts of rockets.
Both big and small.
Nothing is thrown away here; new signs are placed next to the old ones.
Nothing is thrown away. New signs are placed right next to the old ones.
Space technology does not become obsolete.
Space technology doesn’t become obsolete.
France's favorite roundabout is straightened out for difficult cases. If a long rocket is traveling, it may not travel in a circle, but directly.
The roundabouts so beloved in France make exceptions for tricky cases here. If a long rocket needs to pass through, it can go straight rather than through the circle.
Everything in this town is dedicated to space.
Everything in this town is space-themed.
At the airport there is a mysterious greeting in Russian.
A mysterious greeting in Russian hangs at the airport.
Merry Directions
However, what can you expect from an airport where there is no board, and all departure information is written with a marker on a white board.
Then again, what can you expect from an airport which has no flight information displays and where information about departures is written in marker on white dry erase boards?
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