AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
LENINGRAD STATE
UNIVERSITY IM. A.S.PUSHKINA
Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy
Department of General and Applied Psychology
COURSE WORK
ON THE TOPIC: THE CONCEPT OF TEMPERAMENT AND ITS TYPES
Lysenkova Ekaterina Sergeevna
2nd year student
Scientific supervisor: Candidate of Psychological Sciences,
Associate Professor Gaivoronskaya Irina Borisovna
Saint Petersburg
Introduction
Chapter 1. History of the study of temperament
Chapter 2. The concept of temperament
Chapter 3. Properties of temperament
Chapter 4. Characteristics of temperament types
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The problem that will be discussed has occupied humanity for more than two and a half millennia. Every person becomes familiar with the concept of “temperament” early. After all, even in childhood, we notice that there are individual differences between us - some are more active and persistent, while others are slow and shy. It is in these features that temperament is manifested.
Temperament manifests itself in any type of activity (play, study, work), in gait, in gestures and in behavior in general. It includes qualities on which a person’s reactions to other people and social circumstances depend - the ability to quickly get involved in work, perseverance, sociability, speed of mood changes, patience. Temperament is a dynamic characteristic of a person and mental rhythm and tempo, the speed of the emergence of feelings and their stability depend on it.
Temperament is one of those psychological concepts, about which “everyone knows.” When characterizing our acquaintances, we continually use the names of different temperaments - we say about one: “typical choleric”, another we call “sanguine”, a third – “phlegmatic”, a fourth – “melancholic”. And we usually classify ourselves into one of four categories.
Relevance. Currently, psychology takes a holistic approach to the study of man. A person is considered both from the perspective of his inherent universal human properties and from the perspective of his unique individuality. And individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, qualities cognitive processes(perception, memory, thinking, imagination), etc. Therefore, in order to know a person, you need to consider all the traits, the most important of which is temperament, because it is the biological foundation on which the personality is formed as a social being, and the personality traits determined by temperament are the most stable and long-lasting.
The object of research is a person.
The subject of the study is temperament and its types.
The main purpose of this course work is to review the history of the study and the main types of temperament.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks are set in the work:
.Consider the main approaches and theories of studying temperament; 2.Give general characteristics the concept of “temperament”; .Consider the basic properties and types of temperament. Chapter 1. History of the study of temperament The doctrine of temperaments arose in ancient times. The word “temperament” (from the Latin Temperans) translated from Latin means “proper ratio of parts”, equal in meaning to the Greek word “krasis” (ancient Greek. κράσις, « fusion, mixing") was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the world is formed from four elements and the human body is also a mixture of four elements, but connected in a certain proportion. Variations in the proportion of elements in individual people are directly associated by Hippocrates with the four types of fluid present in the body (blood, mucus, yellow and black bile). The degree of predominance of any liquid in this mixture determines the main four types of people: .Sanguine people, people with a predominance of blood in the general mixture. They are characterized by an excellent physique, high mobility, friendliness, insufficient love of work, and a penchant for pleasure; 2.Cholerics, people with a dominance of yellow bile, have a well-developed body and muscles, are energetic, active, strong in character, proud, more capable of arts and military affairs; .Phlegmatic people, people with a predominance of mucus, loose physique, sluggish, inactive, drowsy, do not have the subtlety of feelings necessary for practicing the arts and sciences, there is no diligence and will; .Melancholic people, people with a predominance of black bile, gloomy with a melancholy character. The Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen first gave a detailed classification different types temperament, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates. It included 13 types, including those mentioned above. Is it true psychological characteristics Galen's range of these types of temperament was not rich, but over time it expanded more and more. Developments in anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance led to innovations in explaining temperament types. They began to be increasingly associated with structural features of the body. For example, a number of scientists, in addition to physical properties blood, based the division on the differences in tissues and the width of the lumen of blood vessels. Light blood, loose tissue and moderately dilated vessels facilitate, according to these scientists, the course of life processes and give rise to a sanguine temperament. With significant density in the tissues, blood is retained in the vessels, the pulse becomes stronger and faster, the overall body heat increases - this creates a choleric temperament. With dense blood and narrow vessels in the tissue, only the liquid, watery part of the blood appears, due to which a phlegmatic temperament is born. Finally, dense dark blood with narrow tissue pores and wide lumen of blood vessels leads to the formation of a melancholic temperament. Close to this theory was the point of view of I. Kant, who believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of the blood. Immanuel Kant gave a formal description of four types of temperament, which he divided into two groups. He considered the sanguine and melancholic types as temperaments of feeling, and the choleric and phlegmatic types as temperaments of action. This theory survived until the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th. For example, P.F. Lesgaft, a Russian anatomist teacher and doctor, believed that the width of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of blood vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments; choleric people have a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to fast and strong blood flow; sanguine people have a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to fast and weak blood flow, etc. Another anatomical direction in explaining the types of temperament concerned the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that is most closely connected with those psychological characteristics that characterize various temperaments. Thus, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, which are important for physiology and psychology, argued that the main factor in differences in temperament is the excitability of the blood vessels through which blood passes. His student G. Vrisberg connected temperament directly with the characteristics of the nervous system. In his opinion, choleric-sanguine is caused by a large brain, “strong and thick nerves” and high excitability of the senses. People with a phlegmatic-melancholic temperament are characterized by a small brain, “fine nerves” and low excitability of the senses. I. Genl proposed a theory of temperaments based on the “tone” of the nervous and muscular systems. From the point of view of this scientist, the tone of the nervous system in different people different. The larger it is, the easier a person is excited. A low degree of tone is characteristic of phlegmatic people - this is due to the general lethargy of movements, emotional inexcitability, and weakness of facial expressions. Sanguine and choleric people are easily excitable, but in the former the excitement passes quickly, while in the latter it lasts longer. The melancholic temperament is characterized, from Henle's point of view, by a discrepancy between strong, deep feelings and a poorly developed tendency to activity. Close to this theory is the attempt of the French philosopher A. Foulier to build a theory of temperaments based on the doctrine of metabolism in the body. What Henle calls the tone of the nervous system, according to Fullier, comes down to a greater or lesser intensity of the processes of decay and restoration of substances in the tissues of the body, especially in the central nervous system. According to Fulier, in some cases the processes of decay of energy sources predominate, in others - the processes of restoration. Sanguine temperament is characterized by a predominance of recovery, a quick, but weak and short-lived reaction. Melancholic - a predominance of restoration of nervous substance, a slow but strong and long-lasting reaction. The choleric temperament is characterized by a rapid and strong disintegration, and the phlegmatic temperament is characterized by a slow and weak disintegration of the nervous substance. A number of scientists in our country also adhered to the humoral-endocrine theory of the origin of temperament types. P.P. Blonsky believed that the characteristics of human behavior depend on how balanced and coordinated the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions autonomic nervous system. Vagatonics are slow and calm. Sympathicotonics, on the contrary, are impulsive and decisive. Gradually, scientists became increasingly convinced that the properties of temperament are most clearly manifested in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy expenditure of the body - with the ways of accumulating and spending energy and the quantitative characteristics of these processes. Therefore, most temperament researchers paid attention primarily to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their intensity and course over time. Classic example The typology of temperaments proposed by W. Wundt can serve as such an approach. He understood temperament as a predisposition to affect - this idea was expressed in the following thesis: temperament is for emotion what excitability is for sensation. Adhering to this view, V. Wundt identified two bipolar properties of temperament: the strength and speed of change in emotion, thereby emphasizing the importance energy characteristics individual. Strong emotional reactions combined with emotional instability form a choleric temperament, a small strength of emotional reactions combined with their instability form a sanguine temperament, etc. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. a concept has been formed according to which there is a connection between physique and temperament properties. Such typologies are called constitutional typologies. Among them, the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer is most widespread. He argued that body type determines the mental characteristics of people and their predisposition to corresponding mental illness. After taking many measurements of people's body parts, E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types. .Leptosomatic. Has a cylindrical body, fragile build, tall, rib cage flat. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long, the bones and muscles are thin. 2.Picnic. He is characterized by excessive obesity, small or medium height, a large belly, a round head on a short neck. .Athletic. He has good muscles, a large build, high or average height, broad shoulders and narrow hips. .Displastic. Its structure is shapeless and irregular. Individuals of this type are characterized by various physique deformations. With the named types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates the three types of temperament he identified: .Schizothymic. Has a leptosomatic or asthenic physique. Closed, prone to emotional fluctuations, stubborn. Has difficulty adapting to the environment, prone to abstraction. 2.Cyclothymic. Has a picnic build. Emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness. Easily communicates with the environment, realistic in his views. .Ixothimic. Has an athletic build. A calm, unimpressive person, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. Somewhat later, the concept of temperament put forward by W. Sheldon, which was formulated in the 1940s, gained popularity in the United States. Sheldon's ideas are based on the assumption that the structure of the body determines temperament, which is its function. They identified three types: .Endomorphic. Mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm. The physique is relatively weak, with excess adipose tissue.
2.Mesomorphic. Representatives of this type have a well-developed muscular system, which is formed from the mesoderm. Stable, strong body, has great mental stability and strength. .Ectomorphic. Skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm. The body is fragile and thin, the chest is flattened. Relatively weak development of internal organs and physique. The limbs are long, thin with weak muscles. According to Sheldon, these body types correspond to certain types of temperaments, which he named depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonics (Latin viscera - “insides”), somatotonics (Greek soma - “body”), cerebrotonics (Latin cerebrum - “ brain"). However, the typologies of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon were criticized even by adherents of constitutional concepts of temperament. Critics pointed out their excessive static nature and ignorance of changes in the relationships between the psyche and the structure of the body; drew attention to the fact that these theories did not provide a satisfactory explanation of the relationship between physique and temperament. An attempt to transfer the doctrine of types of temperament to a new scientific basis was made by I.P. Pavlov, who in a publication in 1927 began to understand temperament as a type of higher nervous activity. They identified three main properties of the nervous system: .The strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, depending on the performance of nerve cells; 2.Balance of the nervous system, i.e. the degree of correspondence between the excitation force and the braking force (or their balance); .Mobility of nervous processes, i.e. the rate of change from excitation to inhibition and vice versa. The strength of excitation reflects performance nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand long-term or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. The strength of inhibition is understood as the functional performance of a nerve cell during the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the speed of transition from one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. A measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertia of nervous processes. The nervous system is more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another. I.P. Pavlov found out that the combination of properties of the nervous system, which determines the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament, he called the type of the nervous system, or the type of nervous activity. I.P. Pavlov distinguished 4 main types of nervous system: .Strong, balanced, agile ( alive according to Pavlov - sanguine temperament); 2.Strong, balanced, inert ( calm according to Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament); .Strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of the excitation process ( rampant type, according to Pavlov - choleric temperament); .Weak type ( weak , according to Pavlov - melancholic temperament). I.P. Pavlov understood the type of nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to change under the influence of environment and upbringing. Significant contribution to the development of temperament theory in domestic psychology contributed by B.M. Teplov. His works devoted to the study of the properties of temperament determined not only the modern view of the problem of temperament, but also formed the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Teplov attributed to the properties of temperament stable mental properties that characterize the dynamics mental activity. He explained individual characteristics of temperament different levels development of certain properties of temperament (emotional excitability, excitability of attention, strength of emotions, anxiety, etc.) Famous psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, based on the concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed in the late 1980s. his interpretation of the properties of temperament. Rusalov, based on the theory of the functional system of P.K. Anokhin, which includes four blocks - storage, circulation and processing of information (afferent synthesis block), programming (decision making), execution and feedback, - identified four associated properties of temperament, responsible for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of intensity of interaction of the organism with the environment), the ease of switching from one behavior program to another, the speed of execution of the current behavior program and sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real result of an action and its acceptor . In accordance, instead of two parameters of temperament - activity and sensitivity - four components were identified: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Thus, temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, must be understood as the main characteristics functional systems, providing integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain and the entire nervous system as a whole. From the point of view of this concept, temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense of the word that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. Thus, according to Rusalov, the psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system themselves or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties give rise to. We can conclude that there is no single point of view about the natural foundations of temperament and its types. But modern scientists still agree on the following. First of all, they believe that the type of temperament is determined not by the combination of those three simple properties of the nervous system that Pavlov spoke about, but by many different properties. They also recognize that a person can possess and manifest different types of temperament in work and in communication. And the organic basis of temperament is some features of a person’s genotype, on which the properties of the nervous system depend. Chapter 2. The concept of temperament Temperament is part of the personality structure along with character, volitional qualities, emotions, motivation, social attitudes. It has a significant influence on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his individuality, therefore it is impossible to separate temperament from personality. It acts as a connecting link between the body, personality and cognitive processes. Temperament manifests itself in a person in very different situations: in the way a person speaks and communicates with other people, and in how he is upset or happy, and in the way he works and rests, and in the way he walks and how reacts to various events. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person, since temperament manifests itself in all that part of behavior that is usually recognized as involuntary and hereditary. It is on this basis that Vygotsky builds his definition. In his opinion, temperament is the most physiological and biological concept and covers that sphere of personality that is found in instinctive, emotional, reflex reactions. There is also more general definition temperament. Temperament is a set of stable, individual, psychophysiological properties of a person that determine the dynamic features of his mental processes, mental states and behavior. Let's look at this definition in more detail. It talks about the stable psychological properties of a person on which his behavior depends. The term “psychophysiological” means that the corresponding properties are both psychological and physiological. In other words, we are talking about individual human properties, which are more likely to be innate than acquired. Temperament is the only, purely natural personal characteristic of a person, and since the actions and deeds that a person performs depend on temperament, it refers to personal properties. Dynamic characteristics are characteristics that are described in purely physical terms. Such characteristics include, for example, the energy inherent in behavior, which is associated with a person’s performance, speed and ease of switching activities. A person’s temperament is manifested, first of all, in the speed of mental processes. Also in the impressionability of a person, characterized by the strength and stability of the impact that the impression has on a person. Someone's impressionability can be expressed to a more or less significant degree, the stability of the impression also varies - for some people even a strong impression turns out to be unstable, others cannot get rid of it for a long time. Temperament is reflected in emotional excitability - the strength of emotional arousal, the speed with which it covers the personality - and the stability with which it is maintained. Another central expression of temperament is impulsivity, which is characterized by the strength of impulses, the speed with which they master the motor sphere and turn into action; the stability with which they retain their effective force. Temperament is manifested especially clearly in the strength, as well as the speed, rhythm and tempo of a person’s psychomotor skills - in his practical actions, speech, and expressive movements. A person’s gait, his facial expressions and pantomime, his movements, fast or slow, smooth or impetuous, viscous lethargy or slow fluidity, nervous haste or powerful swiftness of speech reveal to us some aspect of the personality, that dynamic aspect of it that makes up its temperament. It is by these characteristics that, at the first meeting, we can say something about a particular person and assume his type of temperament. Temperament does not determine a person's abilities and talent. Outstanding abilities can occur equally often in any temperament. The concept of “temperament” cannot include such evaluative terms as “good - bad”, “decent - dishonest”, etc. Because each of them has its own positive and negative sides. Any qualities of a particular temperament can be useful in a given situation. Having considered the concept of “temperament”, it is worth paying attention to the properties and types of temperament. nervous person temperament Chapter 3. Properties of temperament Before moving on to a direct examination of the types of temperament, it is necessary to consider what the classification of types is based on - the properties of temperament. The properties of temperament include those distinctive individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic aspects of all his types of activity, characterize the peculiarities of the course of mental processes, are more or less stable in nature, persist for a long time, appearing soon after birth. These properties were identified by B.M. Teplov. .Emotional excitability. This property was understood as the ability to respond to very weak external and internal influences. 2.Excitability of attention is a property of temperament that determines the adaptive functions of the individual’s psyche. It consists in the ability to notice an extremely small change in the intensity of the influencing stimulus. .The power of emotion. Teplov saw the main function of this property in the “energization of activity” depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of motives. (Modern psychologists call this property the intensity and modality of emotional manifestations.) .Anxiety. By anxiety Teplov understood emotional excitability in a threatening situation. Moreover, anxiety is directly dependent on the strength of the stimulus. .Reactivity of involuntary movements. The function of this property is to increase the intensity of adaptive reactions to situations and stimuli that are directly acting at the moment. .Activity of volitional purposeful activity. This property, according to Teplov, manifests itself in increasing the activity of adaptation by transforming the situation in accordance with the goal. .Plasticity - rigidity. The function of this property is to adapt to the changing requirements of activity. .Resistance. This property lies in the ability to resist all internal and external conditions that weaken or inhibit the started activity. .Subjectivation. Teplov saw the function of this property in increasing the degree of mediation of activity by subjective images and concepts. Chapter 4. Characteristics of temperament types In traditional psychology, the description of temperament has long been divided into four types, which are based on the ancient teaching regarding the main types human behavior. These types are described in a variety of ways, but with all the variations in their definition, two main features remain unchanged: the well-known bodily expressiveness of each type, and famous character movements of their tempo as the basis for the transition from a person’s external behavior to the interpretation of his psyche. Currently, a type of temperament is usually understood as a certain set of psychological properties that are naturally interconnected and common to a given group of people. Let's consider the psychological characteristics that Ya. Strelyau gives to the classical types of temperament. Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He responds vividly, excitedly to everything that attracts his attention, has lively facial expressions and expressive movements. He laughs loudly for a minor reason, but an insignificant fact can make him very angry. From his face it is easy to guess his mood, attitude towards an object or person. He has a high sensitivity threshold, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes on new work and can work for a long time without getting tired. He is able to concentrate quickly, is disciplined, and, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, fast pace of speech, quick inclusion in new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. A sanguine person easily gets along with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and surroundings, effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds to a greater extent to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, that is, he is an extrovert. Choleric. Like the sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, and quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than a sanguine person. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater persistence, and possible difficulties in switching attention; he's more of an extrovert. The phlegmatic person has high activity, which significantly prevails over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh or sadden. When there is loud laughter around him, he can remain calm; When faced with big troubles, he remains calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, his movements are inexpressive and slow, as is his speech. Om is slow-witted, has difficulty shifting his attention and adapting to new surroundings, slowly rebuilds skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Characterized by patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to get along with new people and responds poorly to external impressions. By his psychological essence he is an introvert. Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause him to cry, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is unsure of himself, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. A melancholic person is not energetic, unstable, gets tired easily and is ineffective. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention, a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholic people are introverts. You can also consider the characteristics of the types of temperament, the founder of the theory of physiological basis temperament, I.P. Pavlova. Sanguine temperament. I.P. Pavlov gives the following description of the characteristics of the sanguine temperament: “A sanguine person is an ardent, very productive figure, but only when he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring and lethargic.” Choleric temperament. “The choleric type,” notes I.P. Pavlov, “is clearly a fighting type, perky, easily and quickly irritated. “Being carried away by some task, he puts too much emphasis on his means and strength and in the end breaks down, exhausts himself more than he should.” , he is being worked on to the point where everything is unbearable for him.” Phlegmatic temperament. “A phlegmatic person is a calm, always even, persistent and persistent worker of life.” Melancholic temperament. “The melancholic temperament,” notes I. P. Pavlov, “is clearly an inhibitory type of nervous system. For a melancholic person, obviously, every phenomenon of life becomes an agent inhibiting him, since he does not believe in anything, does not hope for anything, sees in everything and only bad and dangerous things await.” Temperaments are practically never found in their pure form. Each person has predominant traits of one temperament combined with traits of another temperament. The given characteristics do not pretend to be categorical, since the division of the temperament of all people into four groups is very arbitrary. More broadly, we can only say that temperament mainly determines the course of mental life human, the dynamics of mental activity. Conclusion The purpose and objectives set in this course work, are completed. The concept and types of temperament are studied, the history of the study is considered. So, we can conclude that there are different points of view on the nature of temperament. One group of scientists adhered to the humoral theory of temperament types (Hippocrates, Galen, Lesgaft, Kant, etc.), others associated temperament with individual differences in physique - the constitutional approach (Kretschmer, Sheldon) and finally, there were those who understood temperament as a type of higher nervous system. activities (Pavlov, Teplov, etc.). Having studied the concept of temperament, we can say that temperament is a dynamic characteristic of an individual’s mental activity, related to the sphere of personality, which is found in instinctive, emotional, reflex reactions. The physiological basis of temperament, according to the teachings of I.P. Pavlova consists of the properties of the nervous system. Temperament is manifested in such aspects as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the characteristics of their attenuation. Temperament manifests itself in a person in the speed of mental processes, impressionability, speed, tempo and rhythm of psychomotor activity, and affects emotional excitability. Even a person’s productivity is associated with certain characteristics of his temperament. Types of temperament and their psychological characteristics that currently exist: .A sanguine person is usually in high spirits, easily adapts to new conditions, and is sociable. Feelings arise and change easily. Rich facial expressions, expressive. 2.Choleric acts sharply and impetuously, is characterized by increased excitability, great emotionality, and is persistent. Has no patience and is quick-tempered. .The phlegmatic person is calm and satisfied with his surroundings. Rarely loses his temper and is not prone to emotions. Has patience and endurance. .A melancholic person is characterized by shyness in movements, hesitation and caution in making decisions. Tired easily and ineffective. Once again, attention is drawn to the fact that any of the temperaments cannot be classified as “bad” or “good”; each type of temperament has strengths that can be advantageous in a particular situation. And in conclusion, it can be noted that by understanding the strengths of their temperament, each person will be able to positively influence their activities and make them more productive, which is why consideration of temperament is a necessary aspect in the modern world. 1.Large psychological dictionary, ed. Meshcheryakov B.G., Zinchenko V.P. - M.: 2003 - 672 p. .Vygotsky L.S. Psychology. - M.: 2000 - 1008 p. 3.Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. Lecture course. 2nd ed. - M.: 2008. - 352 p. .Enikeev M.I. General and social psychology - M.: Norma, Infra-M, 1999 - 624 p. .Ilyin E.P. Psychology individual differences- St. Petersburg: 2004 - 701 p. (Series "Masters of Psychology") .Konstantinov V.V. Philosophical and psychological views ancient East the ancient world (textbook). 2002 .Krysko V.G. Psychology and pedagogy in diagrams and comments. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 320 p.: ill. .Maklakov A.G. General psychology- St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 592 pp.: ill. - (Series “Textbook of the New Century”) .Nemov R.S. General psychology: textbook. For students education institutions prof. Education, special education students. ped. and social and economic profiles / R.S. Nemov. - M.: Humanitarian. ed. VLADOS center, 2008. - 396 p. - (For secondary specialized institutions)
Temperament – an individual characteristic of a person, consisting in the dynamic features of his behavior and response.
The personality of each person is endowed only with its own inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the uniqueness of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in traits of temperament, character, habits, transformative interests, abilities, individual style of activity, etc.
Highlight three areas of manifestation of temperament : general activity, characteristics of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality.
General activity – determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment – physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous.
IN motor sphere manifestations of temperament can be considered as particular expressions of general activity. These include pace, speed, rhythm and total number of movements.
When they talk about emotionality as a manifestation of temperament, they mean impressionability, sensitivity, impulsiveness, etc. Thus, temperament is a characteristic of an individual in terms of the dynamic characteristics of his mental activity, i.e. pace, speed, intensity, mental processes and states that make up this activity
Teachings about temperament , its types have a long history. Temperament has always been associated with the physiological characteristics of the body. The roots of this physiological branch of the doctrine of temperament go back to the ancient period.
Humoral theory . Hippocrates (5th century BC) described four types of temperament, based on the physiological concepts of that time. It was believed that the human body contains four main fluids, or “juices”: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. Mixing in each person in certain proportions, they make up his temperament. Each temperament received its specific name from the name of the fluid that supposedly predominates in the body. Accordingly, the following types were identified: sanguine (from the Latin sangius - blood), choleric (from the Greek chole - bile), phlegmatic (from the Greek phlegma - mucus), melancholic (from the Greek melaniachole - black bile).
But over time, conclusions emerged about what mental properties a person should have, in whose body blood, yellow bile, etc. predominate. This is where psychological descriptions emerged - “portraits” of various temperaments. The first such attempt belongs to the ancient physician Galen (2nd century BC). He gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on humoral ideas about “krasis” (the ratio of liquids). The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance gave a new direction to the explanation of temperament types. They began to be increasingly associated with structural features of the body.
Much later, at the end of the 18th century, I. Kant gave psychological portraits of the four temperaments. He divided them into two groups. He considered sanguine and melancholic as temperaments of feeling, and choleric and phlegmatic as temperaments of action. Kant's descriptions of temperament were later repeated in many sources.
Under the influence of anthropologists, who drew attention to differences in body structure, and psychiatrists, who emphasized individual differences in susceptibility to mental illness, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a concept was formed according to which there is a connection between physique and temperament properties.
Constitutional theory. One of the most famous typologies aimed at identifying the connection between the structure of the human body and its mental properties, its character belongs to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer. Using anthropometric measurements, he identified four constitutional body types. 1. Leptosomatic (Greek – fragile body). Leptosomatics have narrow shoulders, an elongated face, and long thin legs. The term asthenics, which expresses the extreme degree of leptosomal physique, has received more circulation than the term nititosomaty.
2. Picnic (Greek - thick, dense). Picnics include people who have a lot of weight, a belly, a round head and a small dense neck.
3. Athletic (Greek - fight, fight). Athletics are distinguished by strong muscles and broad shoulders. They seem to have come from the classic description of the human figure by Leonardo da Vinci.
4.Dysplastic (Greek – poorly formed). People with dysplasia, as if offended by nature, have a shapeless, irregular body structure.
E. Kretschmer identified the corresponding types of temperaments.
Schizothymic people have an asthenic physique. They, as the name suggests, have a predisposition to schizophrenia. They are schizothymic-authetic, that is, they are self-absorbed, withdrawn, and do not adapt well to the environment. Their character attitudes tend to be excessively abstract. (schizophrenia)
Cyclothymics have a predominantly large build. They are temperamentally a contrast to schizotimics. They are sociable, have a realistic view of the world, and have sudden mood swings (manic depressive psychosis)
Ixothymics have an athletic build and are predisposed to epilepsy. They are less impressionable and obsess over little things; have restrained gestures (epilepsy)
Later, the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon (1940) gained popularity in the USA. At the heart of Sheldon's views is the assumption that the structure of the body determines temperament, which is its function. Sheldon came to the concept of self-type, which is determined through the study of a combination of three parameters - endomorphism (viscerotonic) (active, cheerful, predominant development of internal organs, weak baggy physique with excess adipose tissue), mesomorphism (somatotonic) (hardy, energetic, mentally stable, developed muscle tissue, strong strong body), ectomorphism (cerebrotonic) (easy excitability. Sensitivity, developed nervous system, fragile physique, weak muscles, long arms and legs).
W. Sheldon believes that every person has all three named groups of physical and mental properties. Differences between people are determined by the predominance of certain properties belonging to these groups.
I.P. Pavlov identified 3 main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes. The sanguine temperament corresponds to a strong, balanced, fast type of nervous system; phlegmatic temperament – strong, balanced, slow type; choleric temperament – strong unbalanced fast type of nervous system; melancholic temperament – a weak type of nervous system.
Despite its simplicity and external harmony, Pavlov’s classification concealed deep internal contradictions. Research by Teplov and Nebylitsyn shows that the very structure of the properties of the NS as neurodynamic dimensions of temperament is much more complex than previously thought, and the number of basic combinations of these systems and their properties is much greater.
B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsyn, having studied in detail the properties of the nervous system according to Pavlov, identified some more properties - “dynamism” of nervous processes and “lability”.
“Dynamism” is characterized by the speed of formation of positive and negative conditioned reflexes and differentiations. “Lability” is characterized by the speed of the onset and cessation of the nervous process.
Properties of temperament. (Wolf Solomonovich Merlin) Emotional excitability – the speed of occurrence of various emotional states. Emotional stability – the time during which an emotional state occurs in a person (long-term). Powers of emotion - how strong a person’s emotional state is. Excitability of attention - the speed of attracting attention to something. Activity – the degree of volitional effort exerted by a person to overcome difficulties. Reactivity – rate of reaction occurrence, per sq.-l. irritability. Rigidity – immutability, ossification, stereotyping. Resistance – resistance of organisms to unfavorable conditions. Extraversion – turning the psyche outward. Introversion- turning the psyche inward, inward. Rate of mental actions - speed of mental processes (thinking, perception, imagination) Sensitivity – sensitivity to a stimulus of minimal strength. These properties can change during a person’s life, but their ratio always remains unchanged; this phenomenon is called invariant. (Merlin and Pikhletsky)
Distinctive features of temperament properties .(Bass, Plamin, Rusalov) 1) heritability, innateness of tempo properties. 2) early spinning. 3) light temp. manifests itself in both humans and animals 4) relative to the device during the life of a person. 5) low-impact training, learning and recall. 6) in their connection with the biological saints of people and the saints of the NS. 7) practically do not depend on the purpose of the person and the content of the activity. 8) observed in many areas of behavior and activity (in the psychomotor sphere: speech, gait, movement, facial expressions; intellectual sphere: speed and flexibility of thinking, resourcefulness, speed of memorization ; commune sf: speed of communication, its intensity; emotion sf: speed of emotions arising, depth of experience, duration)
Ways to adapt temperament to the demands of activity . Since each activity makes certain demands on the human psyche and its dynamic characteristics, there are no temperaments ideally suited for all types of activity.
The role of temperament in work and study is that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotional factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it. The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress (for example, assessment of activity, expectation of control of activity, acceleration of the pace of work, disciplinary action, etc.) depends on temperament.
There are 4 ways to adapt temperament to the demands of activity.
1. professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent persons who do not have the necessary temperamental properties from participating in this activity. This path is implemented only during selection for professions that place increased demands on personality traits.
2. It is excluded in the individualization of requirements, conditions and methods of work imposed on a person (individual approach).
3. overcoming the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and corresponding motives.
4. The main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of activity is the formation of its individual style. An individual style of activity is understood as an individual system of techniques and methods of action that is characteristic of a given person and is appropriate for achieving a successful result.
Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impetuosity, abruptness of movements, hot temper, unbridledness, lack of restraint. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclical change in his activity and vigor: having become carried away by some task, he works passionately, with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are depleted, he works himself to the point that everything is unbearable for him. An irritated state appears Bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”).
Sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile n/s, has a quick reaction speed, his actions are thoughtful, cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, and high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person. He easily meets new people and therefore has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affection. He is a productive worker, but only when there are a lot of interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, and distracted. In a stressful situation, he exhibits a “lion reaction,” i.e., he actively, thoughtfully defends himself and fights to normalize the situation.
Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert n/s, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger or cheer); has a high performance capacity, resists strong and prolonged stimuli and difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is unable to give up acquired skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routines, work, new friends, and adapts to new conditions with difficulty and slowly. The mood is stable and even. And in the event of serious troubles, the phlegmatic remains outwardly calm.
Melancholic- a person with weak n/s, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stopper”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc.) etc.) the results of a melancholic person’s activity may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and decreased performance (longer rest is required). A minor reason can cause resentment and tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic person tries to hide, not show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to emotions, is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, and may experience neurotic disorders. However, having high sensitivity n/s, melancholic people often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.
37. The concept of temperament. Types of temperament.
Temperament - a natural relationship between stable individual personality characteristics that characterize various aspects of the dynamics of mental activity and behavior. Properties of temperament - individual pace and rhythm of mental processes, the degree of stability of emotions, expressiveness and energy of movements, intensity of effort, etc., relating to all aspects of mental activity. Such dynamic properties can be associated with other psychological conditions - mood, etc. At the same time, the properties of temperament are the most stable individual characteristics that persist for many years, often throughout life, and dynamic characteristics that do not depend on temperament are much less stable . Various combinations of naturally interconnected properties of temperament are called types of temperament. In psychology, it is customary to use the Hippocratic classification of temperament types: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic . Sanguine - a fast, agile person who gives an emotional response to all impressions; his feelings are directly expressed in external behavior, but they are not strong and easily replace one another. Choleric - a fast person, sometimes even impetuous, with strong. quickly igniting feelings, clearly expressed in speech and facial expressions. gestures; often hot-tempered, prone to violent emotional reactions. Phlegmatic person - a slow, balanced and calm person who is not easily emotionally affected and cannot be enraged. His feelings are almost not manifested outwardly. Melancholic - a person distinguished by a relatively small variety of emotional experiences, but their great strength and duration. He doesn’t respond to everything, but when he does, he worries greatly, although he expresses his feelings little.
38.Temperament and character. The concept of individual style of activity.
A person's personality is unique. No two people are the same. From birth, a person has certain psychological properties inherent only to him. These properties are equally manifested in various activities, regardless of their content, and remain relatively constant throughout life. In their interrelations, these individual properties form types of temperament. The word “temperament” is of Latin origin (temperamentum), meaning “proportionality”, “ratio of parts”. The founder of the doctrine of temperament is considered to be the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5-6 centuries BC). Hippocrates believed that there are four fluids in the human body: blood (sangius - Latin), lymph (phlegma - Greek), bile (chole - Greek) and black bile (melas chole - Greek). If these liquids are mixed correctly, a person will be healthy, if mixed incorrectly, he will be sick. One of the liquids predominates, Hippocrates believed. This determines the type of person’s temperament (sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic).
Scientists from the school B.M. Teplova - V.D. Nebylitsyn discovered that the strength of the human nervous system, which acts as the level of its performance, has not only the main positive significance, but also negative aspects. It has been proven, for example, that in those with a weak type of nervous system, low performance is significantly compensated by an increase in sensitivity, which makes it possible to more clearly perceive changes in the surrounding reality.
Temperament is the individual properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, behavioral characteristics and the degree of balance in reactions to life influences. The properties of temperament can only be classified conditionally among the actual personal qualities of a person; they rather constitute his individual characteristics, since they are mainly biologically determined and innate. However, temperament has a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his individuality, so it is impossible to completely separate temperament from personality. It acts as a connecting link between the body, personality and cognitive processes.
Characteristic features of temperament are:
relatively holistic constancy of individual psychological properties of a person (speed of perception, quickness of mind, speed of switching attention, pace and rhythm of speech, manifestation of emotions and volitional qualities, etc.);
properties of temperament, combined into certain structures (types of temperament), are adequate to the main types of higher nervous activity (HNA). /3, p7-8/
In an adult, the properties of temperament are generally stable and change little under the influence of environment and upbringing. However, it changes during the process of ontogenesis, when the basic structures of the individual’s psyche are formed during his childhood.
It should be borne in mind that temperament types do not exist in their pure form. Between the 4 types of temperament there are up to 16 intermediate forms as variations of the main types. /3, from 36/
An individual style of activity allows people with different characteristics of the nervous system, with different characters and temperaments to achieve the same effectiveness when performing work in different ways. For example, in his study of the individual style of activity among multi-loom weavers, Klimov noticed that melancholic weavers and sanguine weavers can be equally successful in their work, but melancholic weavers prefer the prevention of thread breakage.
Individual style of activity
There are 4 ways to adapt temperament to the demands of activity:
1) professional selection;
2) individual approach;
3) formation of a positive attitude towards the activity and corresponding motives;
4) formation of an individual style of activity.
It is believed that the formation of an individual style of activity is the main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of activity, since it is this that helps people with different temperaments effectively perform the same work.
Otherwise, an individual style of activity (IAS) can be represented as an individually unique system of psychological means to which a person resorts consciously or spontaneously to best balance his (typologically determined) individuality with the objective, external conditions of activity.
An individual style of activity does not appear spontaneously in a person; it can be formed in the process of training and education. The formation of an individual style of activity can first be noticed in preschool age. This formation occurs when solving game problems.
It is believed that the generally accepted formal signs of ISD can be divided into 3 types:
1) a stable system of techniques and methods of activity;
2) a system conditioned by certain personal qualities;
3) a system that is a means of effective adaptation to objective requirements.
Temperament should be understood as natural behavioral characteristics that are typical for a given person and manifest themselves in the dynamics, tone and balance of reactions to life influences. Behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on the characteristics of the natural organization of the individual. Temperament is precisely determined by the biological organization of the individual, and therefore is detected quite early and clearly in children in play, activities and communication. Temperament colors all mental manifestations of an individual, it affects the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, volitional action, affects the pace and rhythm
speech. At the same time, we must remember that neither interests, nor hobbies, nor social attitudes, nor the moral upbringing of an individual depend on temperament. The doctrine of temperament arose in ancient times. Doctors Hippocrates and then Galen,
observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, they made an attempt to describe and explain these characteristics. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates is considered to be the founder of the doctrine of temperament. Hippocrates believed that there are four fluids in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. When these liquids are mixed correctly, a person is healthy; when mixed incorrectly, a person is sick. One of the liquids predominates, which determines a person’s temperament. The names of the temperaments, given by the names of the liquids, have survived to this day. Thus, choleric temperament comes from the word chole (bile), sanguine - from sanguis (blood), phlegmatic - from phlegma (mucus), melancholic - from melanchole (black bile). Hippocrates believed that temperament to a certain extent depends on a person’s lifestyle and climatic conditions. Thus, with a sedentary lifestyle, phlegm accumulates, and with an active lifestyle, bile accumulates, hence the corresponding manifestations of temperament.
Hippocrates correctly described the types, but could not explain them scientifically. Subsequently, in addition to humoral theories, chemical, physical, anatomical, neurological and purely psychological theories were put forward. However, none of them provides a correct and complete explanation of the nature of temperament. Scientific merit goes to I.P. Pavlov, who discovered the properties of higher nervous activity. He showed that the innate combination of these properties characterizes what is called temperament. Unlike his predecessors, Pavlov took for research not the external structure of the body or the structure of blood vessels, but the organism as a whole and identified the brain in it as a component that regulates the activity of all organs and tissues, unites and coordinates the activity of the diverse parts in the system.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT.
Choleric temperament. Representatives of this type are characterized by increased excitability, and as a result, unbalanced behavior. The choleric person is quick-tempered, aggressive, straightforward in relationships, and energetic in activity. Cholerics are characterized by cyclical work patterns. They are able to devote themselves to their work with all passion and get carried away by it. At this time, they are ready to overcome and actually overcome difficulties and obstacles on the way to the goal. But now my strength is exhausted, my faith in my
opportunities, a depressed mood has set in, and they do nothing. Such cyclicality is one of the consequences of the imbalance of their nervous activity. Sanguine temperament. A representative of this type of temperament is characterized as an ardent, very productive worker, but only when he has an interesting job, that is, constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring and lethargic. For a sanguine person, great mobility and easy adaptability to changing living conditions are common. He quickly finds contact with people, is sociable, does not feel constrained
in a new environment. In a team, a sanguine person is cheerful, cheerful, eagerly gets down to business, and is capable of passion. However, while developing vigorous activity, he can cool down just as quickly as he can quickly get carried away if the matter ceases to interest him, if it requires painstakingness and patience, if it is of an everyday nature. Phlegmatic temperament. A phlegmatic person is a calm, balanced, always even, persistent and persistent worker of life. Balance and some inertia
nervous processes allow a phlegmatic person to easily remain calm in any conditions. In the presence of strong inhibition, balancing the process of excitation, it is not difficult for him to restrain his impulses, impulses, and strictly follow the developed
life routine, system at work, not to be distracted by minor reasons. Melancholic temperament. Representatives of this type are distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, and as a result, increased vulnerability. Melancholic people
somewhat withdrawn, indecisive in difficult circumstances, experiencing great fear in dangerous situations. The weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition when they are unbalanced (inhibition predominates) leads to the fact that any strong influence inhibits the activity of the melancholic person and he experiences extreme inhibition. Specifically affects
melancholic and weak irritation, subjectively it is experienced by him as a strong impact, and therefore the melancholic person is inclined to give in to worries about an insignificant matter.
PROPERTIES OF TEMPERAMENT.
Currently, the following are considered to be the main properties of temperament:
The general mental activity of an individual, the essence of which lies in a person’s tendency to self-expression, effective development and transformation of the external environment. The degrees of activity are distributed from lethargy, inertia and passive contemplation to the highest degrees of energy, powerful swiftness of action and constant rise. Motor or motor component. Closely related to the previous one. The leading role in it is played by qualities associated with the motor and speech-motor apparatus. This component is very visual; it manifests itself in the individual’s movements, speech, in particular, the amplitude of his movements, rate of speech, strength, agility of movements and other motor indicators. Based on them, we most often make our first impression of a person’s temperament. Emotionality– the next main property of temperament, is a unique symptom complex of properties and qualities that characterizes the peculiarities of the emergence, course and cessation of various affects, feelings and moods. The main characteristics of emotionality include impressionability, impulsiveness and emotional lability. Impressionability expresses the emotional sensitivity of the individual, his sensitivity to emotional influences, the ability to find the basis for an emotional reaction where such soil does not exist for other people. It is largely associated with sensitivity, both sensory and emotional. Therefore, some people “rip all the skin off their hearts,” while others, “thick-skinned,” react very weakly to their surroundings. Impulsiveness characterizes the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force of an action or action without first thinking through it and consciously deciding to carry it out. Under emotional lability usually understand the speed with which a given emotional state ceases or one experience changes to another. Emotional lability determines how quickly and strongly a person lights up and how quickly he fades away. Often the properties of temperament include extraversion - introversion, which are associated with the strength - weakness of nervous processes. Reactivity. It refers to the level of intensity of an individual’s reactions in response to various stimuli. The more intense the response, the higher the reactivity. Individuals with low reactivity react to stimuli according to the law of strength: an increase in the strength of the stimulus leads to a corresponding increase in the intensity of the reaction. The behavior of highly reactive individuals does not obey the law of force: even with a weak stimulus, their reaction can be significantly higher than required. The higher the individual's excitability, the stronger the reactivity. A negative relationship has been established between the reactivity and activity of an individual. Highly reactive individuals are usually characterized by reduced activity, their activity is of low intensity. Low-reactive individuals are characterized by high activity. Concluding the characterization of temperament, we repeat that its properties represent the most constant and unchangeable characteristics of an individual.
THE CONCEPT OF CHARACTER IN PSYCHOLOGY. NATURAL AND SOCIAL PREREQUISITES OF CHARACTER.
The concept of “character” is used in different meanings, for example, when we want to evaluate a person’s behavior, when we are talking about constant, habitual forms of behavior for a person, or about those forms of behavior in which a person’s personality is expressed. Personality properties that express a person’s attitude to reality, as a rule, do not represent the sum of individual characteristics of a person, but a single whole, which is called a person’s character. So, character- this is an individual combination of essential personality traits that determine a person’s attitude to the world around him and are expressed in his behavior and actions. When we say that a person has such and such a character, we thereby reveal: 1) the system of his relations to reality and 2) the habitual way of his behavior in a certain situation. The character of a person as social being determined by his social existence. It represents the unity of the special and the typical. On the one hand, the individual uniqueness of the life path, living conditions and activities of each individual person forms a variety of individual traits and manifestations of character. On the other hand, the general, typical circumstances of life of people living in the same social conditions shape common aspects and character traits. Typical characters are the product of certain socio-historical conditions. Depending on the predominant influence on the activity of various mental processes, intellectual, emotional and volitional character traits can be distinguished. Many character traits represent deep and active motivations that determine a person’s actions and actions. Character traits motivate If a person acts in a certain way, sometimes despite circumstances, they are best revealed in difficult moments of life. It is believed that the physiological basis of character is a dynamic stereotype.
A dynamic stereotype is a system of conditioned reflexes formed in response to an invariably repeating system of conditioned stimuli. A feature of a dynamic stereotype is that it is determined not only by the type of stimulus, but also by the environment and situation. This means that the body responds to the same stimulus in different situations with different reactions. This phenomenon is called switching. Its essence lies in the fact that, depending on the situation, the central nervous system has a different functional state. The very expression “dynamic stereotype” may seem ambiguous: if “dynamic” means “changing,” then the concept of “stereotype” is associated with stability and constancy.
The similarity of these physiological characteristics with manifestations of human character is as follows:
– they are stereotypical, stereotyped for a given individual;
– depending on the situation, in response to the same stimuli, a person exhibits different stereotypical reactions;
– these physiological characteristics, like the character of a person, are extremely stable and constant. Thus, the physiological basis of character is an alloy of complex stable systems of temporary connections developed as a result of individual life experience and the type of nervous activity.
CHARACTER STRUCTURE.
In the structure of an established character, we must highlight, first of all, two sides: content and form. They are inseparable from each other and constitute an organic unity. When we analyze the structure of the character of a particular person, the content of it
relations to objective reality should come to the fore. The content of character, reflecting social influences, constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e., his material and spiritual needs, interests, ideals and social attitudes. The orientation of the individual determines the goals, life plan of a person, and the degree of his life activity. The content of character manifests itself in the form of certain individually unique relationships that speak of a person’s selective activity. It is necessary to take into account that in the content of character, first one or another component can come to the fore, depending on the way of life, educational influences and the requirements of the surrounding reality. This or that orientation of the personality leaves an imprint on all human behavior, although it is determined not by one particular aspiration or impulse, but by an integral system of relationships. However, in this system something always comes to the fore and dominates, giving originality to the character of a given person. In a formed and morally determined character, the leading component is a system of beliefs. Conviction determines the principled behavior of a person, his inflexibility in the struggle, confidence in the justice and importance of the cause to which he devotes his strength. Conviction is manifested in such character traits as determination, adherence to principles, optimism, and demands on oneself and others. A convinced person is able, in the most difficult moments of testing, to show maximum strength to achieve socially significant goals, and if necessary, to sacrifice himself in the name of a common cause. Depending on the prevailing needs and interests, a person’s unique character develops. Whether a person’s spiritual or material needs and interests dominate - this determines not only the thoughts and feelings of the individual, but also the direction of his affairs. The contradictory or inconsistent behavior of some people in different life situations is explained by a lack of integrity of character, partial development its individual features. Only the integrated use of various means and methods of character formation ensures the formation of characters typical of socialist reality, distinguished by a variety of individual traits.
CHARACTER ACCENTUATIONS. TYPES OF ACCENTUATIONS, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
Accentuation of character- this is a bright, sometimes even excessive, expression of individual character traits. The presence of such personality traits makes a person more vulnerable to certain psychological influences while being resistant to others. Personality accentuations can be obvious or hidden, while obvious accentuations represent an extreme version of the norm, but are not, however, mental disorders. Nevertheless, some types of character accentuations can affect people’s ability to socialize and adapt in their environment. The first classification of personality accentuations was developed by Karl Leonhard, but nowadays the later classification proposed by A. Lichko is more often used in practice. In accordance with Lichko’s classification, the following types of accentuations are distinguished. Cycloid type manifests itself in alternating phases of elevated and depressed mood. The duration of the phases may vary. Hyperthymic type, otherwise called overactive, is expressed in constant thirst communication, desire for vigorous activity, high spirits most of the time. People with such an accentuation of character enthusiastically take on any task, but often abandon them without completing them. Labile type accentuation manifests itself in frequent mood changes depending on the situation and external circumstances. Such people are good-natured, sociable, sympathetic and unusually sensitive. Sensitive type characteristic of people who are impressionable, fearful, timid and shy. This type also manifests itself in a pronounced feeling of inferiority. Astheno-neurotic type accentuation characterizes people who are irritable, prone to hypochondria and depression. In addition, people of the astheno-neurotic type are characterized by high fatigue. Psychasthenic type characterized by a tendency to introspection, indecision, prudence, and accuracy. Such people are self-critical, calm and prone to doubt. Epileptoid type accentuation characterizes people who are characterized by an angry-sad mood, irritability, attacks of anger and rage, sometimes even aggression. Such people are pedantic, pay great attention to detail, are scrupulous, punctual, and strive to dominate others. Schizoid type manifested by isolation, isolation, introversion, such people lack a sense of empathy, they are emotionally cold, unresponsive. In addition, they experience certain difficulties in communication and networking. Demonstrative or hysterical type accentuation is characterized by a penchant for adventurism, a desire to be the center of attention, egocentrism, vanity and ambition. People of this type tend to repress unpleasant events and information, as well as embellish events and lies. Unstable type characteristic of open and sociable people who strive to spend their time in entertainment and relaxation, avoiding necessary activities and work. They are easily influenced by others and are constantly looking for new sensations and impressions. Conformal type characterizes people who lack criticality and initiative. They strive not to stand out from the crowd, do not have their own opinions, and do not like changes in their usual way of life.
CONCEPT OF ABILITIES IN PSYCHOLOGY. ABILITIES AND ADVANTAGES.
When they talk about a person’s abilities, they mean his capabilities in a particular activity. These opportunities lead to both significant success in mastering activities and high performance indicators. All other things being equal, a capable person receives maximum results compared to less capable people. The high achievements of a capable person are the result of the compliance of the complex of his neuropsychic properties with the requirements of his activity. Every activity is complex and multifaceted. It places different demands on a person’s mental and physical strength. If the existing system of personality traits meets these requirements, then the person is capable of successfully high level realize activity. If there is no such correspondence, then the individual is found to be incapable of this species activities. Ability is a synthesis of the properties of a human personality that meets the requirements of activity and ensures high achievements in it. Each ability has its own structure, where it is possible to distinguish between supporting and leading properties. The supporting property of the ability for visual activity will be the high natural sensitivity of the visual analyzer, which develops in the process of activity: a sense of line, proportion, form, light and shade, color, rhythm. Supporting properties also include the sensorimotor qualities of the artist’s hand and, finally, a highly developed figurative memory. The leading properties include the properties of artistic creative imagination. Thanks to them, the essential and characteristic in the phenomena of life is captured, generalization and typification are made, and an original composition is created. There are two levels of development of abilities: reproductive and creative. A person who is at the first level of development of abilities displays a high ability to assimilate knowledge, master activities and carry them out according to the proposed model. At the second level of development of abilities, a person creates something new and original. The highest level of development and manifestation of abilities is designated by the terms “talent” and “genius.” Types of abilities should be distinguished according to their focus or specialization. There are general and special abilities. General abilities are understood as such a system of individual-volitional properties of a person, which ensures relative ease and productivity in mastering knowledge and carrying out various types of activities. Special abilities are understood as such a system of personality properties that helps to achieve high results in any special field of activity. The inclinations should be seen not so much as anatomical and physiological, but rather psychophysiological properties, primarily those that are discovered by a child in the earliest phase of mastering an activity, and sometimes by an adult who is not yet systematically engaged in a specific activity.
The natural prerequisites for this ability are the increased sensitivity of certain analyzers to external influences. As a result, musical or visual experiences bring special joy, as do engaging in related activities. The first tests of strength in areas that correspond to high sensory-motor qualities and inclinations are of decisive importance. In other words, inclinations should be understood as the primary natural basis of an ability, not yet developed, but making itself felt during the first attempts at activity. The inclinations contain opportunities for developing abilities in the process of training, education and work. The innate abilities of the brain are directly manifested in the typological characteristics of a person, which change in the process of life. Typological characteristics that are detected very early in a child are inclinations, or primary natural properties. Typological features have multifaceted significance. They constitute the natural preconditions of abilities and character. Features of general types influence the formation of abilities. Inclinations are primarily manifested in aptitudes for a certain type of activity (special abilities) or in increased curiosity about everything (general ability). Inclinations are the first and most early sign emerging ability. Addiction manifests itself in the desire and attraction of a child (or adult) to a certain activity. This desire is noticed quite early; passion for activity occurs even in unfavorable living conditions. An inclination indicates the presence of certain natural prerequisites for the development of abilities. Along with the true inclination, there is also a false (imaginary) one. With a true inclination, one can observe not only an irresistible attraction to activity, but also rapid progress towards mastery and the achievement of significant results. With a false or imaginary inclination, either a superficial, often contemplative attitude towards something is revealed, or an active hobby, but with the achievement of mediocre results. Most often, such a tendency is the result of suggestion or self-hypnosis, sometimes both together, without the presence of potential development opportunities.
TYPES OF ABILITIES.
Natural (natural) abilities.
They are common to humans and animals: perception, memory, and the ability for basic communication. These abilities are directly related to innate abilities. On the basis of these inclinations, in a person, with basic life experience, through learning mechanisms, specific abilities are formed.
Specific abilities:
General: determine a person’s success in various activities (mental abilities, speech, accuracy of manual movements).
Special: determine a person’s success in specific types of activities, the implementation of which requires inclinations of a special kind and their development (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, artistic abilities).
Capabilities– individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in activity and being a condition for its success. The speed, ease and strength of the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities depend on the level of development of abilities, but the abilities themselves are not reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, although they manifest themselves and develop on their basis.
Abilities are those mental qualities that enable a person to relatively easily acquire knowledge, skills and abilities and successfully engage in any activity.
Abilities are manifested only in activities (feasible). Abilities, B.M. Teplov believed, cannot exist except in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person stops using in practice, is lost over time. Only through constant exercises associated with systematic studies of such complex types of human activity as music, technical and artistic creativity, mathematics, sports, etc., do we maintain and further develop the corresponding abilities. Teplov B.M.: 3 main signs of abilities:
1. individual psychological characteristics;
2. determining the success of the activity;
3. irreducible to knowledge, skills, abilities, but also determining the speed of learning new ways and techniques of activity.
Temperament.
Section three. Psychological characteristics personalities
Definition of Temperament. You can't find two people who are alike mental properties. Each person differs from others in many ways, the unity of which forms him individuality.
Temperament(from lat. temperamentum – ratio, mixing of parts, proportionality) – a complex of psychodynamic properties of an individual, manifested in the characteristics of his mental activity - intensity, speed and pace of mental reactions, emotional tone of life.
Temperament – a naturally determined tendency of an individual to a certain style of behavior. It reveals the individual’s sensitivity to external influences, the emotionality of his behavior, impulsiveness or restraint, sociability or isolation, ease or difficulty of social adaptation.
In the psychological differences between people, a significant place is occupied by the so-called dynamic features of the psyche. As you know, people differ markedly from each other in the strength of their response to environmental influences, in the energy they display, in the pace and speed of mental processes. Features of this kind significantly characterize the mental activity of the individual, his motor skills, emotional manifestations. So, for one person passivity is more characteristic, for another - tireless initiative, one is characterized by the ease of awakening feelings, and the other - composure, one is distinguished by sharp gestures, expressive facial expressions, the other - restraint of movements, very low facial mobility.
The dynamic traits inherent in an individual are internally interconnected and constitute a unique structure. An individually unique, naturally determined set of dynamic manifestations of the psyche is called human temperament.
History of ideas about temperament. The term “temperament” goes back to the views of ancient science on the nature of individual psychological differences. Ancient Greek medicine represented by its largest representative Hippocrates (5th century BC) believed that the state of the body depends mainly on the quantitative ratio of “juices” or liquids present in the body. Blood, bile, black bile and mucus (phlegm) were considered such “juices” necessary for life, and it was assumed that their optimal ratio was necessary for health. Roman doctors, working several centuries later, began to use the word temperamentum to denote “proportion” in the mixing of liquids, which means “proper proportion of parts,” from which the term “temperament” is derived. Gradually, ancient science gained recognition of the idea that not only bodily functions, but also mental characteristics of people are an expression of their temperament, i.e. depend on the proportion in which the main “juices” are mixed in the body. Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen, lived in the 2nd century. BC, for the first time gave a detailed classification of different types of temperament. Subsequently, representatives of ancient medicine reduced the number of temperament types to four. Each of them was characterized by the predominance of one liquid.
The mixing of fluids in the body, characterized by a predominance of blood, was called sanguine temperament (from the Latin word “sangvis” - blood); mixing in which lymph predominates - phlegmatic temperament (from the Greek word “phlegm” - mucus).; mixture with a predominance of yellow bile - choleric temperament (from the Greek word “chole” - bile) and, finally, confusion with the predominance of black bile - melancholic temperament (from the Greek words “melaina chole” - black bile).
These names of temperaments have been preserved to this day, but previous ideas about the organic basis of psychological differences between people are now primarily of historical interest. Over the many centuries that have passed since ancient science, various new hypotheses have been put forward that seek to explain the reason for the differences in the dynamic manifestations of the psyche. In the history of the study of this problem, three main systems of views can be distinguished. The oldest of them, as we already know, connects the cause of individual differences with the role of certain fluid media of the body. To these humoral theories(from the Latin humor - moisture, juice) include ideas about the special significance of blood that have become widespread in modern times.
So, the German philosopher I. Kant (end of the 18th century), who made a great contribution to the systematization of psychological ideas about temperaments, believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of the blood. The idea of the Russian teacher, anatomist and doctor is close to this point of view P.F. Lesgafta, who wrote (at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries) that the manifestations of temperament are ultimately based on the properties of the circulatory system, in particular, the thickness and elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, the diameter of their lumen, the structure and shape of the heart, etc. , which is related to the speed and strength of blood flow and, as a result, a measure of the excitability of the body and the duration of reactions in response to various stimuli. Long-standing ideas about the importance of body fluids have received partial confirmation in modern endocrinological studies, which have shown that such properties of the psyche as this or that dynamics of reactivity, sensitivity, emotional balance, largely depend on individual differences in the functioning of the hormonal system.
The psychodynamic features of human behavior are determined by the characteristics of his higher nervous activity. I. P. Pavlov identified three main properties of nervous processes - strength, balance and mobility. Their various combinations form four types of higher nervous activity, which underlie the four temperaments .
The set of properties of nervous activity, integrated in temperament, determines a number of mental characteristics of the individual:
1. Speed and intensity of mental processes, mental activity, muscle-motor expressiveness.
2. Predominant subordination of behavior to external impressions (extroversion) or its predominant subordination to the inner world of a person, his feelings, ideas (introversion).
3. Plasticity, adaptation to external changing conditions, mobility of stereotypes, their flexibility or rigidity.
4. Sensitivity, sensitivity, receptivity, emotional excitability, strength of emotions, their stability. Emotional stability is associated with levels of anxiety and tension.
In certain types of temperament, there is a “mixing” of the considered qualities in individual proportions. As already noted, there are four main types of temperament: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic.
Sanguine temperament. I.P. Pavlov gives the following description of the characteristics of the sanguine temperament: “A sanguine person is an ardent, very productive person, but only when he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring, sluggish." A sanguine person is distinguished by easy adaptability to changing living conditions, increased contact with people around him, and sociability. The feelings of a sanguine person arise easily and quickly change, his stereotypes are quite flexible, conditioned reflexes fasten in place. In a new environment, he does not feel constrained, is capable of quickly switching attention and activity, and is emotionally stable. People with a sanguine temperament are most suited to activities that require quick reactions, significant effort, and distributed attention.
Choleric temperament.“The choleric type,” notes I.P. Pavlov, “is clearly a fighting type, perky, easily and quickly irritated. “Being carried away by some task, he puts too much emphasis on his means and strength and in the end breaks down and becomes more exhausted than he should.” , he develops to the point that everything is unbearable for him." A choleric person is characterized by increased emotional reactivity, fast pace and sharpness in movements; The increased excitability of a choleric person under unfavorable conditions can become the basis for hot temper and even aggressiveness. With appropriate motivation, a choleric person is able to overcome significant difficulties, surrendering business with great passion. It is characterized by sharp changes in mood. A person with a choleric temperament achieves the greatest effectiveness in activities that require increased reactivity and significant simultaneous effort.
Phlegmatic temperament.“A phlegmatic person is a calm, always even, persistent and persistent worker of life.” The reactions of a phlegmatic person are somewhat slow, the mood is stable. Emotional sphere outwardly little expressed. In difficult life situations, a phlegmatic person remains quite calm and self-possessed; he does not allow impulsive, impetuous movements, since his processes of inhibition always balance the processes of excitation. Correctly calculating his strength, a phlegmatic person shows great persistence in seeing things through to the end. His switching of attention and activity is somewhat slow. His stereotypes are inactive and his behavior in some cases is not flexible enough. A phlegmatic person achieves the greatest success in those activities that require uniform effort, perseverance, stability of attention and great patience.
Melancholic temperament.“The melancholic temperament,” notes I.P. Pavlov, “is clearly an inhibitory type of nervous system. For a melancholic person, obviously, every phenomenon of life becomes an agent inhibiting him, since he does not believe in anything, does not hope for anything, sees in everything and only bad and dangerous things await.” A melancholic person is characterized by increased vulnerability and a tendency to experience deep emotions (sometimes even for minor reasons). His feelings arise easily, are poorly contained, and are outwardly clearly expressed. Strong external influences complicate its activities. He is introverted - busy with his own experiences, withdrawn, refrains from contact with strangers, and avoids new surroundings. Under certain living conditions, he easily develops shyness, timidity, indecisiveness and even cowardice. In a favorable stable environment, a melancholic person can achieve significant success in activities that require increased sensitivity, reactivity, quick learning, and observation. .
General activity and emotionality as aspects of temperament. The central place in the characteristics of temperament is occupied by general mental activity. What is meant is not the content of activity, not its direction, but rather its dynamic features, the energy level of behavior itself. The differences between people in this regard are very great. The degree of activity is distributed from lethargy, inertia at one pole to violent manifestations of energy at the other. Differences in activity related to temperament appear mainly in the following forms: the severity of the need itself, the desire to be active (the desire to continue the activity started; the force of pressure, the energy of the actions performed; endurance in relation to the stress associated with activity); variety of actions performed, tendency to vary them; speed characteristics of reactions and movements (their pace, its increase and decay, sharpness and swiftness or slowness of movements).
It has been established that dynamic manifestations of activity are determined in a certain way by the properties of the nervous system type. Thus, the intensity and stability of activity significantly depend on the strength of the nervous system, and the variability of activity and some of its speed characteristics depend on mobility and lability. Other studies have shown that mental activity as a temperamental trait directly depends on a special property of the nervous system - activation(data E.A. Golubeva).
Of great interest are the results of studies showing that weakness type of nervous system means not only a lack of strength, low endurance, but also increased sensitivity, reactivity, those. readiness to respond to minor stimuli (a weaker nervous system gets tired and exhausted faster because it is relatively easier to excite). And reactivity is also one of the types of activity. In this regard, persons with a weakness of the nervous system have their own special prerequisites for manifestations of activity. Based on reactivity (within the endurance of the nervous system), quickly emerging, inventive forms of activity that subtly take into account circumstances can develop.
It should be noted that the features of general mental activity appear noticeably in speech and motor characteristics and in handwriting. Tempo and rhythm oral speech, movements when writing can tell a lot about this side of temperament. However - as well as about its other side - emotionality.
Dynamic differences in emotionality manifest themselves in the degree impressionability(it is not difficult to discover that in some people the slightest thing is enough to provoke an emotional reaction, while in others it will require a stronger influence), in impulsiveness(this term refers to the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force of actions, without prior thought and decision to carry them out), in emotional lability(meaning the speed at which it stops emotional condition or one experience is replaced by another).
Thus, the dynamic features of the psyche reveal both features of aspirations, actions, and experiences. The sphere of manifestations of temperament is general mental activity and emotionality
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