A truly scientific explanation of temperaments is provided by the teachings of I.P. Pavlova on the types of higher nervous activity.

I.P. Pavlov discovered three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition: 1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition; 2) balance of excitation and inhibition processes; 3) mobility of excitation and inhibition processes.

The strength of nervous processes characterizes performance and endurance nervous system and means the ability to endure it either long-term or short-term, but very strong excitement or braking. The opposite property - weakness of nervous processes - characterizes the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition.

The balance of nervous processes is the ratio of excitation and inhibition. For some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while for others there is no balance: the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.

The mobility of nervous processes is the ability to quickly replace each other, the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the speed of emergence of a nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of formation of new conditioned connections.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes formed the basis for definitions of the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

I.P. Pavlov correlated the types of nervous systems he identified with psychological types of temperaments and discovered their complete similarity. Thus, temperament is a manifestation of the type of nervous system in human activity and behavior. As a result, the relationship between the types of the nervous system and temperaments is as follows: 1) a strong, balanced, mobile type (“live”, according to I.P. Pavlov - sanguine temperament; 2) a strong, balanced, inert type (“calm”, according to I P. Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament; 3) strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement (“unrestrained” type, according to IP Pavlov - choleric temperament); 4) weak type (“weak”, according to I.P. Pavlov - melancholic temperament). A weak type cannot in any way be considered a disabled or not entirely full-fledged type. Despite the weakness of nervous processes, a representative of a weak type, by developing his own individual style, can achieve great achievements in learning, work and creative activity, especially since a weak nervous system is a highly sensitive nervous system.

Classification of temperaments.

Sanguine temperament. A representative of this type is a lively, inquisitive, active (but without sudden, impetuous movements) person. As a rule, he is cheerful and cheerful. Emotionally unstable, easily succumbing to feelings, but they are usually not strong or deep. He quickly forgets insults and experiences failures relatively easily. He is very team-oriented, easily establishes contacts, sociable, friendly, friendly, quickly gets along with people, and easily establishes good relationships.

With proper upbringing, a sanguine person is distinguished by a highly developed sense of collectivism, responsiveness, and an active attitude towards educational work, work and social life. Under unfavorable conditions, when there is no systematic, purposeful upbringing, a sanguine person may exhibit a frivolous, carefree and careless attitude to business, scattered thoughts, inability and unwillingness to complete things, a frivolous attitude towards learning, work, other people, and an overestimation of oneself and one’s capabilities.

Phlegmatic temperament. A representative of this type is slow, calm, unhurried. In his activities he demonstrates thoroughness, thoughtfulness, and perseverance. He is inclined towards order, familiar surroundings, and does not like changes in anything. As a rule, he brings the job he starts to completion. All mental processes in a phlegmatic person they proceed slowly. This slowness can interfere with his educational activities, especially where he needs to quickly remember, quickly understand, figure out, and do quickly. In such cases, a phlegmatic person may show helplessness, but he usually remembers for a long time, thoroughly and firmly.

In relationships with people, a phlegmatic person is always even-tempered, calm, moderately sociable, and has a stable mood. The calmness of a person of phlegmatic temperament is also manifested in his attitude towards the events and phenomena of life: a phlegmatic person is not easily enraged and emotionally hurt, he avoids quarrels, he is not unbalanced by troubles and failures. With proper upbringing, a phlegmatic person easily develops such traits as perseverance, efficiency, and perseverance. But in unfavorable circumstances, a phlegmatic person may develop such specific negative traits as lethargy, inertia, passivity, and laziness. Sometimes a person of this temperament may develop an indifferent, indifferent attitude towards work, the surrounding life, people and even towards himself.

Choleric temperament. Representatives of this type are distinguished by their speed (sometimes feverish speed) of movements and actions, impetuosity, and excitability. Their mental processes proceed quickly and intensely. The imbalance characteristic of a choleric person is clearly reflected in his activities: he gets down to business with enthusiasm and even passion, takes initiative, and works enthusiastically. But his supply of nervous energy can quickly be depleted in the process of work, especially when the work is monotonous and requires perseverance and patience, and then cooling may set in, elation and inspiration disappear, and the mood drops sharply. The predominance of excitement over inhibition, characteristic of this temperament, is clearly manifested in communication with people with whom the choleric person allows harshness, hot temper, irritability, emotional restraint (which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate people’s actions) and on this basis sometimes creates conflict situations in the team .

The positive aspects of the choleric temperament are energy, activity, passion, initiative. Negative manifestations - general lack of restraint, rudeness and harshness, short temper, tendency to affect - often develop in unfavorable conditions of life and activity.

Melancholic temperament. In representatives of this temperament, mental processes proceed slowly, people have difficulty reacting to strong stimuli; prolonged and strong stress causes them to slow down their activity, and then stop it. They get tired quickly. But in a familiar and calm environment, people with this temperament feel calm and work productively. Emotional states in people of melancholic temperament arise slowly, but are distinguished by depth, great strength and duration; melancholic people are easily vulnerable, they have a hard time withstanding insults and grief, but outwardly these experiences are expressed weakly in them.

Representatives of a melancholic temperament tend to be withdrawn, avoid communicating with unfamiliar, new people, are often embarrassed, and show great awkwardness in a new environment. In unfavorable conditions of life and activity, based on a melancholic temperament, traits such as painful vulnerability, depression, gloominess, suspiciousness, and pessimism can develop. Such a person alienates the team, avoids social activities, and immerses himself in his own experiences. But in favorable conditions, with proper upbringing, the most valuable personality traits of a melancholic person are revealed. His impressionability, subtle emotional sensitivity, acute sensitivity to the surrounding world allow him to achieve great success in art - music, drawing, poetry. Melancholic people are often distinguished by softness, tact, delicacy, sensitivity and responsiveness: those who are vulnerable themselves usually subtly feel the pain that they themselves cause to other people.

Character develops and is formed over the course of life path person under the influence of many various factors, conditions and, of course, education. But, despite the fact that character is a lifetime acquisition of a person, for its formation and manifestation a certain foundation is necessary - the starting point for character development. Indeed, scientists have proven that no matter how similar the external conditions are for different people and the process of their upbringing was not identical (for example, children in the same family), they develop different character traits. Psychologists explain this difference by the presence in these people of certain differences in the functioning of their central nervous system and different types temperament.

Temperament as the basis of character

The foundations of a person’s character are also innate physiological characteristics human body (properties of NS, reaction rate, etc.), and fixed in the process of life psychological mechanisms and forms of behavior. So A.V. Petrovsky said that the basis of character is the established system of actions and actions habitual for a person. That is why a person’s character is most often judged based on his actions, behavior and actions. S.L. Rubinstein saw in a person’s character a fixed system that included generalized generalized motivations (here attention was focused on the motivational genesis of character traits). B.G. Ananyev associated character with the orientation of the individual and his unique modes of action.

Despite such diversity in psychological science ideas and theories that relate to character traits, most scientists agree that the basis of a person’s character is temperament. This pattern is understandable, because the characteristics of both temperament and character primarily depend on the presence of a certain type of nervous system in a person.

That temperament is the basis of character, said I.P. Pavlov, who called character the interweaving of a person’s innate and acquired properties. He understood character as a phenotype, the basis of which is, first of all, the features of the nervous system and constitution. Confirming this idea, B.M. Teplov I saw in character a peculiar drawing of a person who embroiders life itself on the canvas of his temperament.

A person’s temperament is the dynamic basis of his character, expressed in a certain type of higher nervous activity, which determines the formation of the following polar traits in human character:

balance/imbalance (manifested in actions and deeds);
mobility/inertia (level of human activity);
in increased/decreased tone (also a manifestation of activity);
sociability/unsociability (in interpersonal communication);
ease/difficulty of entering or being involved in something new (new environment, environment, setting, obligations, field of activity, etc.).

Temperament has a significant impact on the expression of feelings, the level of expressiveness of movements, speed of speech, volitional manifestations, intellectual characteristics, labor activity and human performance. Although it does not determine all the relationships of the individual, as well as his aspirations and interests, it has a direct impact on the level of a person’s energy, his stamina, balance, lability, inspiration and indicates the qualitative uniqueness of the individual.

It should be noted that temperament, as the basis of character, can either promote or hinder the formation of some of its traits. That is why, in order to understand the characteristics of a person’s character, it is necessary to first know the type of his temperament. So, for example, it is much easier for choleric and sanguine people to develop determination and initiative than for phlegmatic or demandingness).

The manifestation of a person’s character is always reflected by the properties of his prevailing type of temperament. But, at the same time, temperament can not only enhance the manifestation of certain character traits, but also help mask them (the need for this arises under certain conditions and depends on the requirements of a particular society, moral principles and life position). It should also be noted that depending on certain properties of a person’s character, his habits and developed skills, the behavior model of people with the same type of temperament can be radically different (in this case, it is worth recalling the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, who spoke about active and lazy phlegmatic people ).

So, temperament, being the basis of character, can color its manifestation and some traits in its own way, giving them unique forms. For example, such a character trait as stubbornness can easily turn into capriciousness in a sanguine person. But it should be remembered that although temperament influences the forms of manifestation of character itself, character itself has an even greater influence on temperament, while subordinating emotional excitability to the will and orientation of the individual (its substantive side).

Physiological basis of character

The physiological foundations of character in psychology were studied thanks to the works of the great Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who were devoted to the study of the characteristics of GNI, properties and types of the nervous system. The physiologist very closely brought together the concepts of temperament and the type of nervous system (but here it is necessary to clarify that temperament itself was understood by scientists much more broadly than by psychologists). The physiologist emphasized that type is the main characteristic of a person’s nervous system, which is reflected in all his activities, therefore it should be considered as the physiological basis of character.

I.P. Pavlov created a classification of types of the human nervous system, which was based on the following characteristics:

strength of nervous processes (inhibitory, irritable);
balance of processes (here we mean processes of excitation and inhibition) or ratio;
their mobility.

By the strength of the NS, the scientist understood the quantitative reserve in the cell physiological substances. Accordingly, the strong type has a large reserve, while the weak type has a small one. Strength refers to two nervous processes (both inhibitory and irritable) and indicates the endurance and performance of cells when exposed to strong stimuli. Pavlov classified sanguine, choleric, and phlegmatic types as strong types, and melancholic types as weak types.

As for balance (the relationship between the process of excitation and the process of inhibition and vice versa), Pavlov identified two types - excitable and inhibitory (they occupy extreme positions) and two types that are balanced (or central). And the last principle, which the physiologist based his classification, is the lability of the nervous system and mobility (how quickly and easily the processes of excitation and inhibition replace each other). Below, the table shows the relationship between types of temperament and types of GNI, which is understood as the physiological basis of character.

Relationship between GNI type and temperament type

The types of nervous systems are not only the basis of temperament, but also determine many other mental properties of the individual, mental processes and states, therefore, the main physiological character is not so much temperament as the type of nervous system.

It should be noted that, despite the fact that I. Pavlov included the NS type as one of the foundations of character, he still clearly distinguished between these concepts. So, by the type of nervous system, he advised to understand the innate qualities of a person, but by character - what the nervous system acquires throughout a person’s life thanks to upbringing and experience gained. So, the scientist separated properties such as GNI (as a natural inclination) and character traits. He said that a person’s character traits include certain properties of the type that can be disguised or transformed, but in any case they are acquired throughout the individual’s life path (in experience) as systems of established connections.

Thus, a person’s character is not formed from scratch, but is in close relationship with the indicators (characteristics) of the strength of the nervous system, as well as its mobility and balance. But upbringing has the greatest influence on character, which means that the main thing is not the type of nervous system itself that was inherited by a person, but the level of plasticity of his nervous organization. It should be noted that properties of the GNI type can also be transformed under the influence of certain factors and the influence of the external environment.

Also, the physiological basis of character is systematicity, which is understood as the expression of tendencies of nervous connections towards a certain integration (or unification). In this case, they speak of the manifestation of a dynamic stereotype, which can also be formed in accordance with the requirements imposed by life. So, for example, the formation of strength of character from a physiological point of view should be considered as the development of such systematicity in the activity of the cerebral cortex.

So, physiological basis character in psychology are considered from the point of view of the work of the brain and the characteristics of higher nervous activity, and more specifically, these are the properties of nervous activity, systematicity, the work of two signaling systems and the predominance of a particular type of GNI.

What is the basis of character?

Character is a mental property of the psyche, which is associated with the manifestations of GND, the basis of which is the innate characteristics of the human nervous system (they, in turn, are reflected in strength, balance and mobility, and then manifest themselves in a certain type of temperament). But it should be noted that this natural basis of character (type NS) from the moment the baby is born and throughout his subsequent life will be influenced by a variety of factors and arrive at different conditions. Therefore, his character will develop under the influence of specific social conditions, cultural and educational space, upbringing and depend on the direction of one’s personality.

But what lies at the heart of a person's character? This question can be answered only by analyzing such a concept in psychology as “dynamic stereotypes.” These stereotypes appear in a person during his life and represent certain systems of nerve connections that arise in the cerebral cortex of the human brain and appear due to the influence of various stimuli that affect nerve cells in a certain sequence and according to a certain system. Such irritations during repeated repetitions provide the appearance of sufficiently strong nerve connections, which after some time appear faster and easier (automatism), without requiring much effort.

Dynamic stereotypes are not only created, but also remade, but in both the first and second cases, the nervous system requires quite diligent and hard work. Dynamic stereotypes become the foundation for a person’s actions and character traits (they most often appear involuntarily).

Thus, a person’s character is a complex synthesis of a specific type of GNI, the predominant type of temperament, life experience, living conditions, influence of others and upbringing. And this is true, because children are born with different features functioning of the brain (which is determined by the type of nervous system), but these features act only as conditions for the development and formation of certain traits of their character. The leading factors are: family, moral principles of the people around them, upbringing and training, norms in a particular society, and much more.

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

RUSSIAN STATE SOCIAL UNIVERSITY URAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL EDUCATION

(branch of RGSU in Yekaterinburg)

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL PEDAGOGY AND SOCIAL WORK

TEST

In the discipline "Psychology"

Topic: “Temperament. Physiological bases of temperament"

Completed by a student

Bayborodina N. A.

Group 346

Specialty 040101

social work

Scientific adviser:

Molchanova N.V.___________

Ekaterinburg 2009

1. The concept of temperament…………..………………………………………………………3

2. Physiological bases of temperament……….………………………..6

3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..10

4. References…………………………………………………….11

THE CONCEPT OF TEMPERAMENT

Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior.

Currently, there are two main indicators of the dynamics of mental processes and behavior: activity and emotionality.

Activity is expressed in varying degrees of desire to act actively, to express oneself in a variety of activities. The manifestation of activity varies from person to person. Two extremes can be noted: on the one hand, great energy, passion and impetuosity in mental activity, movements and speech, and on the other - passivity, inertia, slowness, lethargy of mental activity, movement and speech.

The second indicator of dynamism - emotionality - is expressed in varying degrees of emotional excitability, in the speed of occurrence and strength of a person’s emotions, in emotional sensitivity (susceptibility to emotional influences).

There are four main types of temperament, which received the following names: sanguine (lively), phlegmatic (slow, calm), choleric (energetic, passionate) and melancholic (closed, prone to deep experiences).

Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He responds vividly, excitedly to everything that attracts his attention, has lively facial expressions and expressive movements. For a minor reason, he laughs loudly. From his face it is easy to guess his mood, attitude towards an object or person. He has a high sensitivity threshold, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes on new work and can work for a long time without getting tired. Able to concentrate quickly and, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, fast pace of speech, quick inclusion in new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. A sanguine person easily gets along with new people and quickly gets used to new requirements and surroundings. Without effort, he not only switches from one job to another, but also relearns, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds to a greater extent to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert. 1

Phlegmatic - a person with a strong, balanced, but inert n/s, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger or cheer); has a high performance capacity, resists strong and prolonged stimuli and difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is unable to give up acquired skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routines, work, new friends, and adapts to new conditions with difficulty and slowly. The mood is stable and even. And in the event of serious troubles, the phlegmatic remains outwardly calm.

A choleric person is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impetuosity, abruptness of movements, hot temper, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclical change in his activity and vigor: having become carried away by some task, he works passionately, with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are depleted, he works himself to the point that everything is unbearable for him. An irritated state appears, a bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”). The alternation of positive cycles of uplifting mood and energy with negative cycles of decline and depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, and an increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.

A melancholic person is a person with weak n/s, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, a “stopper”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore in stressful situations (exams, competitions, danger, etc.) .p.) the results of a melancholic person’s activity may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and decreased performance (longer rest is required). A minor reason can cause resentment and tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic person tries to hide, not show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to emotions, is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, and may experience neurotic disorders. However, having high sensitivity n/s, melancholic people often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

Temperament characterizes the dynamism (mobility) of an individual, but does not characterize his beliefs, views, interests, is not an indicator of the greater or lesser social value of the individual, and does not determine his capabilities (the properties of temperament should not be confused with properties of character or abilities).

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF TEMPERAMENT

For a long time, psychology was dominated by the humoral theory of temperaments, which originated from the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 BC). Hippocrates explained the peculiarities of people's temperaments by different proportions of liquid substances in the body, namely: blood, bile and lymph. This is where the term “temperament” itself comes from (from the Latin tempera - proportion), as well as the names of individual temperaments: a sanguine person is a full-blooded person, a choleric person is bilious, a phlegmatic person suffers from excess lymph, and a melancholic person has black bile predominant in the body.

In modern times, the humoral theory explains the peculiarities of temperament by blood chemistry, as well as the presence in the blood of hormones secreted by the endocrine glands.

The most justified is that put forward by I.P. Pavlov’s neurological theory of temperaments, which derives the characteristics of temperament from the physiological properties of the human nervous system.

I.P. Pavlov defines temperament as the most general characteristics nervous system individual person: “temperament is the main characteristic of the nervous system, giving a certain appearance to the entire activity of each individual.” According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, the physiological basis of temperaments is the stable functional characteristics of the nervous system, which make it possible to distinguish several characteristic types of the nervous system.

Types of the nervous system. Each type of nervous system is a characteristic combination of three basic properties of nervous processes - strength, balance and mobility.

The strength of inhibitory and irritative processes is characterized by the performance of the cells of the cerebral cortex, their functional ability to withstand the effects of stimuli of varying degrees of intensity.

The balance of nervous processes represents a certain degree of correspondence between the strength of irritative and inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex.

The mobility of nervous processes is characterized by the ability of nerve cells to more or less quickly move from excitation to inhibition and vice versa.

According to these features of nervous processes, I. P. Pavlov distinguishes the following types of nervous system:

Based on the strength of irritative and inhibitory processes, strong and weak types of the nervous system can be distinguished.

Animal with strong type The nervous system responds adequately to external stimuli: intense stimuli cause strong processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex, and non-intense stimuli cause correspondingly weak reactions. In an animal with a weak type of nervous system, the opposite happens.

Based on the balance of nervous processes, balanced and unbalanced types of the nervous system can be distinguished. In the first case, there is a correspondence between the strength of excitatory and inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex. Strong excitation is balanced by the same strength of inhibition in other parts of the brain. With an unbalanced type of nervous system, this correspondence is violated: excitation in strength can prevail over inhibition processes and vice versa.

Based on the mobility of nervous processes, mobile and sedentary types of the nervous system can be distinguished. The first is characterized by the ability of cortical nerve cells to quickly move from a state of excitation to a state of inhibition and vice versa. The sedentary type is characterized by a slow change of these processes, their “stagnation”.

These features of the nervous system do not appear in isolation, but always in organic connection with each other. The actual type of the nervous system is characterized simultaneously by the characteristics of strength, balance, and mobility of nervous processes. This allowed I.P. Pavlov to establish the following four main types of the nervous system: living, unrestrained, inert and weak, to which he gives the following characteristics.

The living type is characterized by the presence of a strong nervous system, which is at the same time distinguished by a good balance of excitatory and inhibitory processes and their mobility, expressed in the rapid change of these processes.

The unrestrained type, distinguished by the presence of a strong nervous system, is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes, namely: the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

The calm type is characterized by the presence of a strong nervous system, the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, but at the same time their low mobility: the processes of excitation and inhibition in this type of nervous system slowly and with difficulty replace each other.

The weak type is characterized by the presence of a weak nervous system, low efficiency of nerve cells, and their rapid depletion. This type of nervous system is characterized by a weak course of excitation and inhibition processes that is inadequate to the strength of the stimuli received, and in some cases even a breakdown in work nerve centers, the appearance of “exorbitant inhibition” when exposed to strong stimuli instead of the normal excitatory process.

The main types of the nervous system established by I.P. Pavlov make it possible to explain many features of temperaments. I.P. Pavlov himself believed that sanguine temperament is due to the presence of a “living” (strong, balanced and mobile) type of nervous system in a given person; choleric temperament occurs in people who are distinguished by an “uncontrolled” (strong, but unbalanced) type of nervous system; The phlegmatic is characterized by an inert, and the melancholic - a weak type of nervous system.

CONCLUSION

Temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which, equally manifested in a variety of activities regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain relatively constant throughout a person’s life and in interconnection characterize the type of temperament.

There are four types of temperament: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic.

The first theory of temperaments began with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, but the most substantiated is that put forward by I.P. Pavlov’s neurological theory of temperaments, which derives the characteristics of temperament from the physiological properties of the human nervous system.

The types of nervous system identified by I.P. Pavlov according to their main characteristics correspond to 4 classical types of temperament:

strong, balanced, agile - sanguine;

strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic;

a strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitement - choleric;

weak type - melancholic.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Goryachev M.D., Dolgopolova A.V., Ferapontova O.I., Khismatullina L.Ya., Cherkasova O.V. Psychology and pedagogy: Tutorial. Samara: Samara University Publishing House, 2003. 187 p.

2. Kuraev G.A., Pozharskaya E.N. “HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY” Course of lectures. Rostov-on-Don, 2002. 232 p.

3. Sorokun P.A. Basics of psychology. - Pskov: PGPU, 2005. 312 p.

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th century BC, described four temperaments, which were given the following names: sanguine temperament, phlegmatic temperament, choleric temperament, melancholic temperament. The lack of necessary knowledge did not allow at that time to give a truly scientific basis to the doctrine of temperaments, and only studies of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans conducted by I. P. Pavlov established that the physiological basis of temperament is a combination of the basic properties of nervous processes.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, individual behavioral characteristics and the dynamics of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition

Three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition were established:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

2) balance of excitation and inhibition processes,

3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to tolerate long-term or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines performance (endurance) nerve cell.

The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. When exposed to very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly go into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. For some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while for others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.

One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the speed of alternation of processes of excitation and inhibition, the speed of their occurrence and cessation (when living conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the speed of appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of formation of new conditioned connections, the development and changes in the dynamic stereotype.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type. Representatives of a weak type of nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. The processes of inhibition and excitation are weak. When exposed to strong stimuli, production is delayed conditioned reflexes. Along with this, high sensitivity is noted (i.e. low threshold) on the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance of the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid turnover of nervous processes lead to relative instability of nerve connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are always outwardly calm, even, and difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., during the course of life, these conditioned connections will be formed differently in different people: this is where the type of higher nervous activity will manifest itself. Temperament is a manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

The characteristics of a person’s mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person’s individual life, in the process of upbringing. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to a person’s behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire appearance of a person - it determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

Physiological basis of temperament

People have long tried to find the organic basis of temperament. There are three main systems of explanation of its essence, where the first two are currently only of historical interest and are based on biological ideas about temperament. Let us first consider how ideas about the biological foundations of temperament have changed.

The idea and doctrine of temperament in its origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. He described the main types of temperaments, gave them characteristics, but connected temperament not with the properties of the nervous system, but with the ratio of various fluids in the body: blood, phlegm (from the Greek phlegma - mucus) and bile. It was believed that every liquid has special property and special purpose. The property of blood is warmth, and its purpose is to warm the body. The property of phlegm is cold and it serves to cool the body. The property of yellow bile is dryness. The purpose is to maintain dryness in the body, to “dry” it. Mine

The quality of black bile is dampness. It makes it possible to maintain dampness and moisture in the body. Based on this theory, the most famous physician of antiquity after Hippocrates, Claudius Galen, developed the first typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise “De temperamentum” (from the Latin temperamentum - proportionality, the right measure). This first classification of temperaments was called humoral.

Humoral the theory connected the state of the body with the ratio of various fluids in it, in connection with which four types of temperament were distinguished. It was believed that if blood predominates (Latin “sanguis”), then the temperament will be sanguinistic, if bile (“chole”) - choleric, if mucus (“phlegm”) - phlegmatic, and black bile (“melana chole”) determines melancholic temperament. Despite the fact that this terminology and description of various types of temperament arose in the 5th century. BC. (Galen, Hippocrates) they have survived to this day. Despite the naivety of the explanation of the phenomenon of temperament, such a feature was correctly noted as the combination in the human psyche of all types of temperament with the predominance of one of them.

The humoral (fluid) theory of temperament reflected some elements of true knowledge and became a kind of prototype, a model of modern, more developed ideas about the natural prerequisites for individual differences. The ancient Greeks did not know and could not know the entire wealth of natural characteristics of a person: the structure of his brain, the properties of the nervous system, etc. However, based on ideas about the integrity and unity of the organism, they brilliantly foresaw a possible connection between the properties of the organism and the properties of the psyche.

Second - constitutional system, which arose in the twentieth century (E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon). Its essence was to explain temperament on the basis of associating temperament with a person’s physique. The main idea of this theory: the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function.

E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types: leptosomatic, athletic, picnic and dysplastic.

Leptosomatic characterized by a fragile physique, tall stature, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the legs are long and thin.

Athletic- a person with developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by tall or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

Picnic- a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, characterized by small or medium height, a bloated body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

Dysplastics- people with a shapeless, irregular body structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various physique deformations (for example, excessive height, disproportionate physique).

With the first three types of body structure, E. Kretschmer correlated the three types of temperament he identified, to which he gave the following names: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic.

Schizothymic, having a leptosomatic (asthenic) physique, is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, difficult to change attitudes and views, and has difficulty adapting to a new environment.

Unlike him, ixothimic, Having an athletic build, he manifests himself as a calm, unimpressive person with restrained facial expressions and gestures, and low flexibility of thinking. It is often characterized by pettiness.

U cyclothymic who has a picnic physique, emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily connects with people and is realistic in his views.

American researcher W. Sheldon also proposed to derive a certain type of temperament from body type. He assessed the physique based on the development of three main human tissues: ecto-, meso- and endomorphy. According to W. Sheldon, ectomorphs –. people who have a predominance of ectomorphic tissues (skin, hair, nervous system) are characterized by a cerebrotonic temperament, namely: a craving for aesthetic pleasures and coldness in communicating with people. Endomorphs – people with well developed internal organs, they are distinguished by a lively, sociable temperament. Persons with well-developed bone and muscle tissue ( mesomorphs) is characterized by a craving for competition and aggressiveness.

As soon as they emerged, constitutional concepts became the object of sharp scientific criticism. The main disadvantage of this approach is that it underestimates and sometimes simply ignores the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation mental properties individual.

The third approach to explaining the essence of temperament connects types of temperament with activity of the central nervous system.

A decisive shift in understanding the basis of temperament occurred in the early 30s. XX century, thanks to the works of I.P. Pavlov (I.P. Pavlov, 1951). He was the first to express the idea that temperament is based not on the properties of fluids or bodily tissues, but on the peculiarities of the functioning of the nervous system.

In the teachings of I.P. Pavlov on the influence of the central nervous system on the dynamic features of behavior, three main properties of the nervous system are distinguished - strength, balance, mobility excitatory and inhibitory processes. Excitation strength And braking force The scientist considered two independent properties of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov clearly linked the properties of the nervous system - a combination of strength, balance and mobility - with one or another type of temperament.

Excitation strength reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand long-term or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. Braking force is understood as the functional performance of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions.

Talking about balance of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov meant the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes determines whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced, where the strength of one process exceeds the strength of the other.

Third property nervous system - the mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes - manifests itself in the speed of transition of one process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. A measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertia of nervous processes. The nervous system is more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

The properties of nervous processes identified by I.P. Pavlov form various combinations that determine the type of nervous system. Four main typical combinations of them are presented in the form four types higher nervous activity:

o strong, balanced, agile ( sanguine);

o strong, balanced, inert ( phlegmatic person);

o strong, unbalanced ( choleric);

o weak ( melancholic).

These types of nervous system, not only in quantity, but also in basic characteristics, correspond to the four classical types of temperament.

In the 50s In the USSR, laboratory studies of temperament were carried out under the leadership of first B.M. Teplov, then V.D. Nebylitsin and subsequently V.M. Rusalov, as a result of which I.P. Pavlov’s typology was supplemented with new elements. Based on numerous techniques for studying the properties of the human nervous system, two more properties of nervous processes were experimentally identified and described: lability And dynamism.

Lability of the nervous system manifests itself in the speed of emergence and cessation of nervous processes. Essence dynamics of nervous processes constitute the ease and speed of formation of positive (dynamic stimulation - excitation) and inhibitory (dynamic inhibition) conditioned reflexes.

In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament changes and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - already includes four components: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to V.M. Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and these in turn are understood as the main characteristics functional systems, providing integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain and the entire nervous system as a whole.

Thus, temperament is a psychobiological category, consisting in the fact that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, as the author puts it, represent a “systemic generalization” of the initially genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, “included in the most different types activities, gradually transform and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties.”

According to two main types human activity- objective activity and communication - each of the identified properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that they manifest themselves differently in activity and communication.

One more circumstance characterizing the connection between temperament and the properties of the nervous system should be paid attention to. Psychological characteristics temperament is not the properties of the nervous system themselves or their combination, but typical features the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties give rise to.

Let us consider these properties in relation to cognitive processes, objective activity and human communication. The corresponding properties include activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability.

The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by the extent to which a person is able to concentrate, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect. Pace is manifested in how quickly the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, considers, imagines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another.

The productivity of all of the listed cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained over a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where you manage to see, hear, remember, remember, imagine, and decide more in the same amount of time. Productivity should not be confused with performance. A person who has highly productive (in the indicated sense of the word) cognitive processes does not necessarily have increased performance, i.e. the ability to maintain a given pace of work for a long time.

Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence, cessation or switching of one or another cognitive process from one object to another, transition from one action to another. For example, some people take longer than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember or recall information faster than others. It should also be kept in mind here that these differences do not define people's abilities.

In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in the athlete, included in various exercises than in someone whose temperamental property is weakly expressed. A more active person has a more extensive handwriting, his letters are taller, and the distance between them is greater than that of a less active individual. To a person with increased activity It is more difficult to perform weak, subtle, small-amplitude movements, while a person with reduced activity may find it more difficult to perform strong and sweeping movements.

The pace of work in subject activity is determined by the number of operations, actions, movements performed per unit of time. One person prefers to work at a fast pace, another at a slow pace.

The productivity of actions associated with movements depends on the activity and pace of work, if no additional requirements, other than frequency and intensity, are imposed on the corresponding actions.

In human communication, the discussed properties of temperament manifest themselves in a similar way, only in in this case they concern verbal and non-verbal person-to-person interaction. In an individual with increased activity, speech, facial expressions, gestures, and pantomime are more pronounced than in a person with reduced activity. More active people have, as a rule, more in a strong voice. The rate of their speech, as well as the rate of emotionally expressive movements, is quite high.

The communication style of highly and weakly excitable people differs significantly. The former react faster, make contact more easily, and adapt better in communication than the latter. Inhibited individuals stop communicating more easily and are less talkative than those whose inhibitory reactions are slow. These latter are often distinguished by the fact that they talk a lot, do not let go of the interlocutor and create the impression of being annoying.

They have difficulty switching in communication from one topic to another, from one person to another. The “productivity” of their communication, i.e. the ability to communicate and perceive information per unit of time, is also greater than that of people of the opposite type - inactive and slow-paced.

IN foreign countries Most psychologists are characterized by an empirical focus on temperament research, which is expressed in the so-called “factorial” approach to understanding the structure of temperament. The most famous studies in this regard are G. and M. Ayzenkov. Their characteristic feature is their reliance on vast (more than thirty years of experimental material), which has confirmed the existence of such fundamental traits of temperament (personality - in Eysenck’s terminology) as extroversion - introversion, neuroticism ( emotional stability– emotional instability) and psychoticism. According to Eysenkov, it is these three fundamental dimensions of temperament that are universal, inherent in all representatives Homo sapiens and which can be used as the basis for a typology of temperament (G. Yu. Eysenck, 1993).

Thus, in the history of the development of the doctrine of temperament, two aspects are clearly distinguished: the first is associated with the transformation of ideas about the biological foundations of temperament, the second is with a change in the understanding of the psychological components of temperament themselves.