The cow is one of the most important domestic animals - meat and dairy products from her are on our table almost every day.
Let's take a closer look at the anatomy and physiological features this animal.
Head
The largest pet has a large head that is aligned with the spine. Pronounced facial features are the main data of this representative of a large cattle.
Scull
A large skull, connected through the cervical spine to the skeleton of the animal, is one of the methods of protection. The cow, unlike other large ungulate mammals, does not take off its horns. The structure of the skull is divided into cerebral and facial parts.
The strong bones of this part of the skeleton can withstand strong impact... In addition to strong bones, the head of the animal has powerful occipital muscles that help long time be in the pasture with your head down.
Important! The calf's skull has an equally developed facial and brain parts. With age, the facial part develops much more noticeably, and the face becomes larger than the rest of the skull.
Eyes
The eyes of a cow are very expressive, because this organ consists of three membranes at once - reticular, vascular and fibrous. The pupil is located in the iris, which belongs to the choroid.
Cows have long and stiff eyelashes, due to which they are called "cows". They help the animal to distinguish the length of the blades of grass and avoid injury to the eyes from various tall plants. 
The structure of the eye does not allow these pets to see colors - they normally distinguish only White color, and the worst is green and red. Cows also see zoomed out images, making their movements awkward.
Teeth
This pet has complex system teeth, which changes as he grows up. Initially, the calf has 20 milk teeth, which are replaced by molars within a year and a half. An adult cow has 32 teeth, among which there are no upper incisors.
Due to their absence, the animal nibbles the grass in a special way - it grabs a bunch of grass with its lips and tongue in its mouth and presses it to lower teeth... After that, the grass is pulled out with a sharp movement of the head.
Important! Thus, unlike sheep or goats, cows do not injure the roots of plants, so the grass always turns green on their pastures.
The adult has 24 flat molars and 8 incisors. The animal has no canines, but the muscles of the jaws are very strong. Immobility upper jaw is compensated by the activity of the lower one, which is capable of performing circular grinding movements. 
Ears
The cow's hearing is simply unique, as this animal memorizes musical compositions and is able to respond to the memorized melody.
A cow's hearing aid consists of three parts:
- internal;
- middle - contains the tympanic membrane;
- external - consists of a large number cartilage that gives the organ its mobility.
Skeleton
The skeleton of this representative of cattle is an example for the research of novice physicians. It has large, strong bones, and their examination helps in understanding the structure of the body and the musculoskeletal system of animals. 
Spine
The cow's spine is divided into five sections:
- cervical - 7 vertebrae from the skull to the chest;
- thoracic - 13 vertebrae, which are consistent with the ribs and are mobile in the lower part near the lungs;
- lumbar - 6 vertebrae;
- sacral - 5 vertebrae;
- caudal - up to 20 vertebrae.
Limbs
The forelimbs rest on the thoracic spine, and therefore are called accordingly - thoracic. Hind limbs called pelvic. There are also auxiliary bones through which the limbs are connected to the skeleton.
For the anterior bones, these are the shoulder blades, shoulders, forearms, hands, and for the hind bones, the system of the hip bones, thigh, lower leg and foot.
Did you know? When the cows are happy, they run and jump from the feeling rushing over them.
All four limbs of the cow end in hooves - two forked toes with rudiments of two more that hang from the back.
Video: cattle foot skeleton
Internal organs and systems
A large and powerful animal must be strong and resilient. The cow is just that, and all internal organs and systems help her in this.
Muscular
The musculoskeletal system of an animal at birth makes up almost 80% of the mass. With growing up, this figure drops to 60-70% - this means that such a powerful skeleton must be moved by a serious muscle mass which makes up almost 50% of the weight adult.
The musculature of a large bull consists of almost 250 different muscles, which often work with opposite forces - translational or extension, flexion or extension. Thanks to the high-quality work of the entire complex - the external skeletal muscles and internal system smooth muscles - all organs and systems of the body operate without interruption. 
Nervous
The nervous system of the animal includes the senses through which the cow sees, hears and feels the world... All received data are delivered to the brain, where they are processed and conclusions are formed about the need and type of reaction to the information received. Each part of the brain is responsible for a specific response, which is controlled by fibers in the spinal tract.
Quality work internal organs defines a healthy and productive animal, so it is worth paying close attention proper nutrition and a good psychological atmosphere when raising adults.
Respiratory
Large volume internal cavities in the chest respiratory system, with the help of which the body's gas exchange is carried out. Due to the size of the animal, its respiratory system is very large and developed.
Did you know? The right lung in cattle is larger than the left due to the placement of a large heart in the chest. The left organ can be practically split in two by the location of the heart.
The lung mass in a cow reaches 3.55 kg, in a bull - 4.8 kg, and the respiratory rate is important factor for the diagnosis of various diseases. 
Cardiovascular
The heart of a healthy cow is capable of pumping through itself several tons of blood per day. This is sufficient to ensure the continuous movement of the main fluid in the body.
V circulatory system there is a constant movement of blood and lymph, which has a positive effect on hormonal regulation and the functioning of the immune system.
High-quality work of the heart helps to transfer antibodies and hormones, and also contributes to the provision of body cells with water, oxygen, and nutrients.The bovine four-chambered heart is divided into two parts, each with an atrium and a ventricle. The thin-walled atria receive blood from the lungs and deliver fluid to the left atrium, where it is squeezed out of the chambers of the heart. 
Digestive
The digestive system of a cow has a complex structure that allows it to receive the necessary nutrients even from meager and harsh feed. The food eaten "quickly" is regurgitated from the stomach into the oral cavity for further chewing, after which it is swallowed again in an already digestible form.
Oral cavity. Lips, teeth and tongue are captured by plant food, which is further crushed using teeth and a dental plate located above the lower incisors. The upper jaw is larger than the lower jaw, and the animal benefits from this by moving food from one side of the mouth to the other.
V oral cavity a large number of salivary glands, which help with the grinding of the feed, significantly moisturizing it. Through the esophagus, the mass of food moves into the stomach, which has a unique structure, from where it is regurgitated over time for "chewing".
The stomach of a cow has complex structure and functionality - this body consists of several departments:- mesh section (consists of a mesh and a scar);
- book;
- abomasum.
Actually, the abomasum is a real stomach with secretion gastric juice, and the previous parts are considered only an expansion of the esophagus.
Food in portions enters the small intestine from the abomasum. Bile and pancreatic juice digest food, and the secreted substances are absorbed into the blood. Small intestine an adult cow is about 45 m long, and many receptors create a huge absorption area for nutrients.
- cecum - fermentation of food takes place here, which has been cleaved in the abomasum;
- colon - serves for the formation of excrement;
- anal opening.
The device of the stomach of ruminants: video
Urinary
The urinary system of a cow consists of the following organs:
- kidneys - filter blood and produce urine;
- ureters - carry urine into the bladder;
- bladder - stores urine and directs it to the urethra;
- urethra - serves to remove processed fluid from the body.
Genitals
The genitals of animals of different sexes, like humans, differ significantly. Let us consider the structure of the reproductive system of the female and the male separately. 
The structure of the genital organs of a cow
- In the ovaries, eggs grow and develop, which flow outward from the ruptured mature follicle.
- V fallopian tube the fertilization of the egg takes place, it is sent from there to the uterus.
- The uterus is necessary for the development of the fetus, which is pushed out of there by muscle contractions during childbirth.
- The vagina is designed for copulation and is located between the cervix and the urethra.
- The clitoris performs the functions of additional stimulation, an increase in uterine contractions, which favorably affects the likelihood of fertilization.
- The vulva contains the opening of the urethra and is located under the entrance to the anus.
- The pudendal lips are the entrance to the vagina and, when deepened inward, change their structure from skin folds to the mucous membrane.
Video: Anatomy reproductive system cows
The structure of the genital organs of a bull
The bull's genitals produce up to 6 ml of sperm during one ejaculation.
- The formation and subsequent growth of sperm occurs in the testis. Another purpose of the organ is to produce male sex hormones.
- The scrotum is a repository of the testis and is a massive fold of skin between the thighs of a bull. In this cavity, the temperature is lower than in the peritoneum, and this helps in the development of sperm.
- The vas deferens, as its name implies, carries sperm to the fertilization site of a cow's egg through the ejaculatory duct.
- The spermatic cord is a fold in abdominal cavity, which contains nerve fibers, blood and lymphatic vessels as well as the seed tube.
- The urogenital canal (also called the male urethra) drains urine and vomits semen. The organ starts from Bladder and ends at the glans penis.
- The penis inserts semen into the cow's vagina and also serves as the urine.
- Prepucius - male analogue foreskin, which covers the glans of the penis in a relaxed manner and is pulled from the erect penis.
The structure of the genital organs of males: video
The complex structure of the skeleton of a cow requires careful study so that in the future it will be easier to cope with all kinds of diseases. Like other general knowledge of bovine anatomy, this is important for veterinarians and breeders to better assess the situation. Thanks to our article, you can understand whether the calf is developing correctly, assess the risk of fractures and monitor general condition cows and bulls in the herd. This information is especially useful for employees of small farms who do not have their own veterinarian.
General information about the structure and types of bones
The bones that make up the skeleton of a cow are grouped into three large groups: mixed, tubular, and flat.
The latter form the scapular region, pelvis and ribs. Mixed bones make up the cranium of cattle. Their main difference from flat ones is that they do not matter in the food sector (they are not used for cooking broths).
The tubular bones are the backbone of the cow's musculoskeletal system. They have a cavity filled with bone marrow and two heads at the edges. These very heads are composed of a large amount of fat. It is interesting that it is thanks to the heads on tubular bones, the broth gets its fat content and other useful and taste properties.
When studying the structure of cows, 6 large sections are distinguished: head, trunk, spinal, rib section, sternum and limb. Let's talk about each of them in more detail.
Functionality and development of the skull
The skull of a cow or bull is made up of extremely strong bone plates that can withstand a lot of pressure. The skull in livestock is divided into two sections: the part of the brain and the bones that form the snout.
The first section serves to protect the cow's brain from external influence... The second is responsible for the formation of the muzzle - the facial bones. These include: eyes, nose and mouth. When the calf is first born, the parts are roughly equal. As the baby develops, the facial sections change, but the brain section remains the same.
Paired and unpaired bones form the cranium of cattle. This means that certain types of bones are found in a single copy, while the rest have a symmetrical pair. The skull of a cow, which is equivalent to that of a bull, includes 7 variants of unpaired bones and 13 "mirror" bones.
The structure of the cranial bones
Above, we said that the skull of any representative of cattle is formed by doubled and non-doubled bones. Doubled, mirrored - these are the frontal, parietal and temporal. The bones that form the occipital, wedge-shaped and inter-parietal regions have no pair. Their full list is as follows:
- single bones that form the brain region (wedge-shaped, inter-parietal, ethmoid);
- non-repeating bones responsible for the cow's face (lacrimal, ocular, zygomatic, palatine, incisor, pterygoid, upper and lower shell, jaw);
- double bones brain department(frontal, temporal, parietal);
- single bones of the muzzle (vomer, hyoid).
Thanks to the entrance located at the base, the vessels and nerve endings that regulate its work pass to the animal's brain. The importance of these bones is obvious - they protect the brain, without which the animal cannot exist. Any damage in this area may cause serious consequences, up to death.
Number and types of teeth
To monitor the development of the calf, you should Special attention to give the structure of their teeth. In young heifers, the jaw consists of 20 milk teeth. An adult has 32 of them. The jaw and teeth of gobies are designed so that they can eat only plant foods.
When eating grass from pasture, animals do not harm the root system of plants, due to which the grass in areas intended for grazing livestock grows faster and thicker.
This grass-eating is possible thanks to the sharp, long, oblique and forward-facing incisors that grow from the lower gums. Medium incisors-toes, cut grass and soft plants when eaten. They chew thanks to circular jaw movements.
The health of the animal, the performance of its functions and normal development depend on the correct functioning of each section and the integrity of all bones of the skeleton.
Ribs and their meaning
Ribs are flat bones. They are attached to the spine and sternum. They differ in form and quality composition.
So, the front pairs of ribs are more powerful and stronger than the others. The middle pairs are flexible and expand towards the edges. The hind ones are convex and curved. The last pair is the shortest and thinnest. Often, it is attached only to the vertebra, not reaching the other edge of the chest plate.
Some of the ribs are connected to each other. Pairs connected by cartilage are called false. The cow has 5 pairs. In addition, there are 8 non-fused pairs. Since at one end they are attached to the spine, the number of ribs corresponds to the number of vertebrae in the sternum - 13 pairs.
These important bone formations protect the heart, lungs and stomach of the animal from damage. At the same time, a fracture of any of the ribs can become a serious problem and damage one of these organs.
In addition, the ribs account for a significant part of the loads, since they are part of the musculoskeletal system.
Spine
To answer the question of how many vertebrae a cow has, each vertebral section should be considered. There are 5 vertebral divisions in total: neck, sternum, loin, sacrum and tail.
The neck section consists of 7 vertebrae. Its main difference is high mobility. The significance of these vertebrae is that they connect the head and sternum. The sternum is formed by 13 vertebrae. They are the base where the ribs join and are characterized by low mobility.
The lower back includes 6 vertebrae, in the sacrum there are one less. The latter form the pelvic cavity. The tail section consists of 18-20 moving parts. Now, having counted, we can say that the cow's spine is 49-51 vertebrae, including the reduced tail vertebrae (reduction - simplification of the structure).
Limb structure
The legs of the cow correspond to two sections: the chest and the pelvic. WITH biological point of vision, limbs are the bones of not just the legs themselves, but also the bones that attach them to the spine. All of them dock with the spine in the region of the scapula and pelvis - hence the name of the departments.
A cow's front pair of legs consists of the shoulder blade, shoulder bones, forearms and hands. The hand is formed from the carpal, metacarpal and digital bones. A cow's toes are her hooves, according to animal anatomy. The hind legs are the pelvic bone, thighs, shins and feet. Interestingly, the thigh bone is considered the largest in the skeleton of a cow. Its structure is tubular.
Despite the anatomical names: fingers and feet, the limbs of cows end in hooves. They are of the artiodactyl type. This means that the hooves are bifurcated at the base. Above the hooves hang two more "fingers", but this is a rudimentary unnecessary part.
Scapular and humeral elements of the skeleton
The name "scapula" originated from Latin as are many medical and anatomical terms. In cows, it is part of the shoulder girdle. The scapula itself is a flat, triangular bone plate. On her outside there are two fossae separated by the scapular axis.
The scapular plate, with the help of the glenoid fossa, enters the humerus. This place is located near the middle of the second costal pair. The dorsal angle is located near the edges of the 6th and 7th costal pairs.
The humerus has a tubular structure. At one end, the epiphysis, on which the head is located, it is docked with the scapular plate. Muscle tubercles are located on both sides of the humerus. The lower end ends with an articular block, and the upper end with the ulnar fossa. The bone itself is somewhat rough, due to which it connects to the muscles.
Forearm and its forming bones
The forearm bones include the ulna and radius. Between them is bone, due to which they are tightly connected to each other. When calves are born, this connection is fragile, so if the baby is carelessly handled, a dislocation of the forearm can occur.
The radius bones in cows are slightly curved and have a rough surface. This allows the biceps to attach to the forearm. One end of the radius ends with a joint connecting it to humerus... The second edge connects to the wrist.
farm animal crossbreeding
The apparatus of movement is represented by the skeleton, ligaments and muscles, which, unlike other systems, form the physique of cattle, its exterior.
Bone is a part of the skeleton, an organ that includes various tissue elements. It consists of 6 components, one of which is red. Bone marrow- an organ of hematopoiesis. The longest red bone marrow remains in the spongy substance of the sternum and vertebral bodies. All veins (up to 50% of the veins in the body) come out of the bones mainly where there is more spongy substance. Through these sites, intraosseous injections are made, which replace intravenous ones.
Rice. one.
1 - nasal bone; 2 - incisor bone; 3 - maxillary bone; 4 - frontal bone; 5 - occipital bone; 6 - parietal bone; 7 - the temporal bone; 8 - orbit; 9 - zygomatic bone; 10 - mandibular bone; 11 - opener; 12 - epistrophy; thirteen - cervical vertebra; 14 - thoracic vertebra; 15 - scapula; 16 - humerus; 17 - lumbar vertebra; 18 - rib; 19 - xiphoid cartilage; 20 - sternum; 21 - radius; 22 - elbow bone; 23 - wrist; 24 - metacarpus; 25 - sesamoid bones; 26 - fetlock bone; 27 - coronoid bone; 28 - hoof bone; 29 - sacrum bone; 30 - the ilium; 31 - maklok; 32 - pubic bone; 33 - ischium; 34 - caudal vertebrae; 35 - femur; 36 - trochanter; 37 - kneecap; 38 - tibia; 39 - process of the fibula; 40 - tarsus; 41 - calcaneal tubercle; 42 - metatarsus; 43 - finger
The skeleton of cattle (Fig. 1) consists of 2 sections: axial and peripheral.
The axial section of the skeleton is represented by the skull, spine and chest.
The bones of the cerebral skull form the vagina for the brain, and the bones facial department- oral and nasal cavity and orbits of the eyes; the organs of hearing and balance are located in the temporal bone. The bones of the skull are connected by sutures, except for the mobile ones: the lower jaw, the temporal and hyoid bones.
The spine is located along the body of the animal, in which the vertebral column is distinguished, formed by the vertebral bodies (the supporting part, which connects the work of the limbs in the form of a kinematic arc) and the spinal canal, which is formed by the arches of the vertebrae surrounding spinal cord... Depending on the mechanical load created by the body weight and mobility, the vertebrae have different shape and magnitude.
Number of vertebrae in cattle
Spine: Cervical - (number of vertebrae) 7, - Thoracic -13, - Lumbar - 6, - Sacral - 5, Tail - 18-20, Total - 49-51
The rib cage is formed by the ribs and sternum... Ribs - paired arcuate bones, movably attached to the right and left to the vertebrae of the thoracic region spinal column... They are less mobile in the front. chest where the scapula is attached to them. In this regard, the anterior lobes of the lungs are more often affected in diseases of the lungs. All ribs make up a fairly voluminous conical chest, in which the heart and lungs are located.
The composition of the thoracic limb includes: a scapula attached to the body in the area of the first ribs; the shoulder, consisting of the humerus; forearm, represented by the radius and ulna; a hand (Fig. 4), consisting of a wrist (6 bones), a metacarpus (2 fused bones) and phalanges of the fingers (2 fingers having 3 phalanges, the third phalanx being called the coffin bone).
The pelvic limb consists of a pelvis), each half of which is formed by a nameless bone, the ilium is located above, the pubic and ischial bones below; thighs presented femur and knee cap that slides over the femur block; tibia, consisting of the tibia and fibula; the foot, represented by the tarsus (6 bones), metatarsal (2 fused bones) and phalanges of the fingers (2 fingers having 3 phalanges, with the third phalanx called the coffin bone).
STRUCTURE OF THE SECOND LINK OF THE LIMBS - ZEIGOPODIA
On the thoracic limb, the zeigopod bones form the skeleton of the forearm - skeleton antebrachii, on the pelvic - the skeleton of the lower leg - skeleton cruris. The skeleton of these areas includes two bones. On the forearm (Fig. 62), the radial - radius and ulnar - ulna, on the tibia - tibia and peroneal fibula (perone). In domestic animals, the main supporting column of the limb in this link includes only one of two bones: on the thoracic limb, the main bone is the radius, and on the pelvic, the tibia. The second bones (ulna and fibula) are significantly reduced, especially on the tibia, where in ruminants they look like small processes.
The radius and tibia are less massive than the humerus and femur. They are thinner in the diaphysis, longer, especially the tibial. At the proximal ends, slightly expanding the area of their articular surface, they do not have a spherical head. On the radius, this is a somewhat elongated (transverse) depression along the segmental plane - an imprint of the humerus block. On the tibia the proximal end, in contrast to the radius, has two flat condyles, in the center between which there is a significant intercondylar eminence - eminentia intercondylaris. On the cranial side of the proximal end of the tibia, there is a significant thickening, from which the anterior margin, the margo cranialis of the tibia, descends down to the middle of the diaphysis. It leans somewhat to the lateral side and forms a groove with the body, in which muscles are located that slide in it during movement.
The diaphysis of the radius is flattened from front to back, on the tibia it is more rounded. The distal ends - the block of the radius - trochlea radii and the block of the tibia - trochlea tibiae are very different from each other in shape. On the radius, it is a rather flat platform with an uneven articular surface in the form of a transversely set oval. On the sides of it, from the lateral and medial sides, small thickenings are visible; they are called styloid processes. On the tibia, on the contrary, the distal end has deep grooves on the articular surface and high ridges between them. The distal epiphysis of the tibia is much smaller than the proximal. On the lateral and medial sides of the articular surfaces there are thickenings, which are called the medial and lateral ankles - malleoli medialis et lateralis. The lateral malleolus is formed by the adherent rudiment of the fibula. The second bones - ulna and fibula - in different stages reduction.
The ulna - ulna, in contrast to the fibula, has a large olecranon at the proximal end - olecranon with a significant tubercle of the olecranon - tuber olecrani. This olecranon protrudes strongly above the proximal end of the adjacent radius bone and is the site of anchorage of powerful extensor muscles. elbow joint... The body of the ulna and its distal end undergo significant reduction, especially in horses and ruminants.
Rice. 62. Bones of the forearm of a cow
The fibula - fibula is reduced to a much greater extent. The rudiment of its distal end forms the lateral malleolus.
Features of the structure of the bones of the zeigopodia.
In ruminants, the radius is always fused with the rudimentary ulna, and only the proximal and distal interosseous fissures remain between them - spatium interosseum antebrachii proximale et distale (Fig. 63).
The tibia is slightly curved at the proximal end (Fig. 64). A downwardly directed bone plate, narrowed downward, grows to the lateral condyle. This is a rudiment of the fibula. At the distal end, the articular groove is placed in the sagittal plane. On the lateral side, it bears a small articular surface for connection with the ankle bone (peroneal rudiment).
In horses (Fig. 65), the radius is flattened from front to back and fused with the ulna only in the proximal part, forming one interosseous space. The ulnar tubercle is massive and shorter than that of ruminants. The body of the ulna is expressed only in the upper third.
A characteristic feature of the tibia is the obliquely set grooves of the block on its distal epiphysis. On the outer surface of the lateral condyle of the proximal epiphysis, there is a small rough surface for connection with the rudiment of the fibula, resembling a rod with an expanded flat head at the proximal end. Its length is equal to half the length of the tibia.
In pigs, the radius is massive, flattened, rather short. On the caudal side, it bears a rough surface, to which a triangular shaped ulna with a large ulna tubercle is attached. Downward, the radius expands.
The tibia is massive, with a powerful crest leading edge... Proximally and distally, on the lateral surface, there are roughness - the places of attachment of the fibula, which has the shape of a flat, slightly widened at the ends of the bone in the form of a spatula. The groove of the distal tibial block is set straight.
In dogs, the radius is flat, slightly thickened at the ends. On the caudal side of the proximal end, it bears a small articular surface for connection with the ulna. The ulna has a groove on the ulna. It narrows towards the distal end and does not fuse with the radius.
Rice. 63. Bones of the forearm of a cow (I), horses (II), pigs (III), dogs (IV)
Rice. 64. Bones of the lower leg of a cow (I), a horse (II), a pig (III), a dog (IV)
Rice. 65. Bones of the shin of a horse
The tibia is also curved. On the lateral condyle it has a facet for connection with a thin flat fibula, which often fuses with the tibia with its distal end.
Thus, the ulna and fibula are expressed along their entire length only in pigs and dogs, that is, in animals in which the autopodia is multi-rayed (4-5 rays). In ruminants and horses with only 1 or 2 rays in the autopodia, the ulnar and fibula underwent significant reduction. In ruminants, the ulna, although expressed along its entire length, is thin and has lost its "independence" - it has grown together with the radius. They do not have a fibular. In horses, the ulna and fibula are expressed only in the proximal part and are very small in size.
- The shoulder girdle is represented by one shoulder blade. The anterior fossa is much narrower than the posterior fossa. The scapular cartilage is large.
- The humerus is relatively short.
- In cattle, the radius is very well developed; a less developed ulna grows to it behind and laterally.
- Cattle have four bones in the proximal row and two in the distal row.
- III-IV metacarpal bones fused into one "running" bone.
- In cattle, the hoof bones differ little. Each bone is shaped like a triangular pyramid.
- The pelvic cavity is cylindrical.
- Femur relatively short.
- In cattle, at the distal end, there is a third grooved facet for the ankle bone. The head of the tibia is attached to the lateral condyle of the tibia.
- The metatarsal bone is more massive than the metacarpal; it is longer, tetrahedral in cross section.
In cattle, the bone is compressed dorso-ventrally and greatly expands caudally. The handle is massive, cylindrical, raised dorsally by the anterior end; connects to the body of the bone by the joint. The notch for the first pair of ribs is at the front end of the handle.
Cervical
In cattle, the vertebrae are massive, short; the heads and pits are well defined; spinous processes are developed, have thickened ends, their length increases in the caudal direction. The costal processes are located ventrally from the transverse processes and are deflected forward. The ventral crest is present only on the 3rd - 5th vertebra. On the 6th vertebra, the costal process is wide and long.
Chest
In cattle, the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae, due to their small number (13, rarely 14), exceed their width in length. Wide, lamellar, with sharp caudal margins, spinous processes strongly inclined caudally. Most long process on the 2nd vertebra. The diaphragmatic vertebra is 13th. Sometimes the ends of the spinous processes are thickened, but flattened from front to back. There are lateral vertebral foramen. The rib facets on the transverse processes are saddle-shaped.
Cattle have 13 pairs of ribs, sometimes hanging ribs (14th pair). The ribs are characterized by long necks, saddle-like facets on the costal tubercles and uneven body width: the vertebral section of the rib is 2.5 - 3 times narrower than the sternal rib. The cranial edge of the rib is thick, the caudal edge is sharp. Both edges are often uneven, "dug", and sharp. The width of the ribs increases to the 6th (7th), the length up to the 7th (9th); their curvature is insignificant. The corners of the edges are fairly well pronounced. The thoracic ends from the 2nd to the 10th (11th) rib are equipped with articular facets for articulation with the costal cartilage. 1st rib is straight, cylindrical. The costal cartilages from the 2nd to the 10th (11th) have facets at both ends.
Lumbar
Cattle have 6 lumbar vertebrae; the cranial articular processes are equipped with grooved facets, the caudal ones are cylindrical. The vertebral bodies are long, with ventral crests, narrowed in the middle. The transcostal processes are set horizontally or even slightly bent dorsally at the ends; their edges are often jagged, sharp; the length of the processes of the 3rd and 4th vertebrae is greatest. The spinous processes are wide, low. The caudal intervertebral notches are deep.
Cattle have 5 vertebrae. The spinous processes are fused into a ridge with a thickened free edge. The wings of the sacral bone are compressed from front to back; the ear-shaped articular surfaces are directed caudally; cranial articular processes with grooved facets. The median vascular groove runs on the concave pelvic surface of the sacrum. The ventral sacral foramen are extensive. The fusion of the sacral vertebrae occurs at 3-3.5 years.
Tail section
Cattle have a long tail; there are only 18-20 vertebrae in it, but their bodies are significantly elongated. The rudiments of the arches are fairly well pronounced. Of the articular processes, only the cranial processes were preserved, and the transverse processes took the form of wide plates bent ventrally. There are hemal arches attached to the cranial ends of the bodies of the first 3-5 vertebrae, more often there are only their rudiments in the form of tubercles on the first 9-10 vertebrae.
Newborn animals of different age maturity differ in the proportions of parts and areas of the body: in calves, compared to cows, the ratio of the length of the legs to the height of the chest is 25% higher, and the ratio of the ratio of the diameter of the chest to the distance between the beads is 11%. The ratio of the width of the frontal region to the length of the head is 8% higher than that of cows.
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