Speech: mechanisms of speech. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech

Topic 6. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms oral speech fine

Plan.

Organization of central regulation of movements.
Characteristics of voluntary and involuntary movements.
The concept of muscle tone and their “operant” rest.
Formation of motor stereotypy.
The structure of the peripheral speech apparatus.
The role of the muscular system in the functioning of the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus.
Speech articulation as a model top level development of voluntary movements.
Formation of speech motor stereotypy.
Speech breathing as the energetic basis of oral speech. Formation in ontogenesis of articulatory-respiratory coordination in the process of oral speech.

At present, largely in connection with the successes of domestic physiology, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function are not separate “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in different areas of the central nervous system and at its different levels and are united by the unity of working action.

Understanding the role of individual private brain systems in its holistic activity allows us to conduct a systemic analysis of speech disorders.

Selective speech disorders functional system are developing due to organic lesions brain of a focal nature due to injuries, inflammatory and vascular diseases, etc. and are always accompanied by functional neurodynamic disorders in structures adjacent or even quite distant from the lesion.

Functional speech disorders are associated with pathological changes in the course of basic nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) and especially with disturbances in their mobility.

In some cases, these disorders are a consequence of temporary inhibition of individual parts of the speech functional system and are easily recorded as incorrect speech skills.

In other cases, speech disorders can be entirely determined only by functional disorders, as exemplified by many cases of stuttering, accelerated speech rate, incorrect sound pronunciation, and voice disorders.

Various analyzers are related to the functional speech system - primarily motor, auditory and visual.

Each analyzer consists of a receptor apparatus that perceives stimuli, conductive pathways and central department in the cerebral cortex, where it occurs higher analysis and synthesis of the resulting stimuli.

The results of the activity of all cortical analyzers taking part in the formation of speech reactions are transmitted along the pyramidal tracts to the nuclei of the cranial brain nerves the brain stem of its own and especially the opposite side. Nerves depart from the nuclei and go to the peripheral speech apparatus, in the muscles of which the endings of the motor nerves are located (Fig. 1).

Motor nerves carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles, regulating tone and causing the muscles to contract, resulting in the production of voice and characteristic speech noises. Sensitive stimuli from the peripheral speech apparatus (auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) go to the central nervous system.

The functional organization of such manifestations of speech activity as shouting and babbling is the simplest; they are carried out on the basis of the activity of the structures of only the stem and subcortical parts of the brain and are observed in children from the first months of life.

IN early periods During development, the child begins to master the intonation aspect of speech, which, apparently, may also be associated with the activity of the subcortical nuclei of the brain.

At the age of 7-9 months, the child begins to imitate the sounds of speech of those around him, and by one year he is already imitating entire sound sequences. This means that the cortical sections of the auditory and motor analyzers begin to function, and moreover, jointly.

The child learns to subordinate the activity of his articulatory apparatus to signals coming from the auditory analyzer. This skill is necessary for the development of speech, which is proven by the facts of muteness of children who lost their hearing in the early periods of development.

Gradually, the activity of the auditory and motor analyzers becomes more complicated. A child of the first years of life (2-5 years), under the control of hearing and kinesthetic stimulation (as well as vision), learns to control his articulatory apparatus according to the laws of the linguistic environment in which he lives. He develops a phonemic sound system used in different types speech activity to distinguish the meanings of words. Finally, in junior school age the child begins to master written speech (writing and reading), for which the visual analyzer is of particular importance.

In an adult, speech is somehow involved in all his mental processes, cognitive activity, thinking, memory, etc. This, however, does not exclude the fact that individual speech processes (own speech, speech perception, reading, writing) are provided primarily by different departments of the integral functional speech system, which is clearly revealed in speech pathology. The speech therapist must be familiar with the activities of the main analyzers (auditory and motor) that take part in the formation and implementation of speech.

The human auditory function is performed by the auditory analyzer, the peripheral perceptive apparatus of which is the organ of Corti of the inner ear, followed by the auditory nerves, central pathways and the cortical region. auditory analyzer, located in the temporal lobes of the brain. The most complex analysis and synthesis of speech auditory signals with their generalization into the phonemic system of the language is carried out by the secondary and tertiary sections of the cortex of the left temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere.

A person perceives sounds and differentiates them by strength, pitch, sound duration and timbre, but this hearing turns out to be insufficient for the perception of even elementary speech.

The ability to differentiate complex sound sensations and especially speech sounds develops in a child under the influence of the surrounding speech environment, and in the process of active mastery of a particular language.

This ability, acquired in individual development, is called meaning-distinguishing or phonemic hearing.

Hearing impairment, especially in childhood, deprive speech movements of their normal sensory basis and lead to the fact that articulations, which have lost their control from the ear, are underdeveloped in the child.

Hearing impairment can be peripheral or central.

By peripheral hearing impairments, often leading to deaf-muteness in childhood, we mean such disorders that occur when the middle ear is damaged, which conducts sound to the sound-receiving apparatus during inner ear, or this device itself. Damage to the auditory nerves can also lead to deafness.

Central hearing loss is observed with lesions projection zone cortical end of the auditory analyzer in temporal lobe brain (unilateral damage to this area does not cause a significant decrease in hearing acuity due to the cross-course of the auditory pathways); cortical deafness develops only in the case of bilateral lesions of the projection cortical zone of the auditory analyzer, which is extremely rare.

Finally, with damage to the secondary and tertiary cortical fields of the auditory analyzer, in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere of the brain, hearing acuity does not decrease, but sensory alalia, or sensory aphasia, develops.

The speech motor analyzer includes the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nuclei, central descending motor tracts, nuclei of the brain stem (primarily the medulla oblongata) and peripheral nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles (see Fig. 1).

For the activity of the speech motor analyzer, kinesthetic stimuli coming from the muscles of the speech apparatus to the cerebral cortex are also essential. According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, kinesthetic stimulation is a basal component of speech; together with auditory stimuli, they play a large role in the formation of phonemic hearing; Visual perceptions of articulatory movements are also of some importance.

The trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and hypoglossal motor cranial nerves take part in the innervation of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

The trigeminal nerve innervates masticatory muscles and muscles that close the mouth; facial nerve-- facial muscles, including muscles that perform closure

and stretching of the lips, grinning, puffing out and retracting the cheeks; glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal cords, pharynx and soft palate; in addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue; accessory nerve- neck muscles; hypoglossal nerve - muscles of the tongue. The nuclei of the last four nerves are located in the medulla oblongata, and therefore they are called bulbar nuclei. There are many nerve fibers that connect individual bulbar nuclei with each other and with other nuclei peripheral nerves, which ensures their joint activities.
Peripheral speech apparatus.

The peripheral speech apparatus includes: organs oral cavity, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, chest and diaphragm (Fig. 2).

The respiratory apparatus is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. The main purpose of the breathing apparatus is to carry out gas exchange, i.e., the delivery of oxygen to the body and the excretion carbon dioxide, and it also simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions.,

The movement of the chest walls during inhalation is carried out due to the action of the so-called inspiratory muscles (Fig. 3). Some of them expand the chest, mainly to the sides and forward (external intercostal muscles and levator ribs), others - downwards (diaphragm), others - upwards (muscles attached at one end to the upper ribs and clavicles, and at the other to the base of the skull ).

The diaphragm is a flat muscle that separates chest cavity from the ventral, has a dome-shaped shape; when you inhale, it goes down and becomes flatter, which allows the lungs to expand, and when you exhale, it goes up again (see Fig. 3).

In addition to the main respiratory muscles, there are also auxiliary muscles (for example, the muscles of the shoulder girdle and neck). The participation of auxiliary muscles in the act of breathing usually indicates that the main muscles cannot provide the necessary air supply (during running, heavy physical activity).

The processes of vital and speech breathing differ significantly from each other.

The process of vital breathing proceeds rhythmically, in the same sequence: inhale-exhale-stop, inhale-exhale-stop. Inhalation is the most active part of the entire process. Immediately after it, the respiratory muscles relax, returning to a state of rest, in which they remain until a new breath is taken. In an adult healthy person 16-18 complete ones occur per minute breathing movements. The time spent on inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same (4:5); inhalation occurs through the nose, exhalation through the mouth. The amount of air exhaled at one time is approximately 500 cm 3 , but the lungs are never completely freed from air; so-called residual air always remains. The rhythmic change of breathing phases occurs involuntarily, reflexively, outside of our consciousness.

The features of speech breathing are associated with the fact that speech breathing is included in the speech process, serves it, and is the basis of voice formation, the formation of speech sounds, and speech melody.

Breathing in speech is associated with its varied flow and alternation of speech units: syllables, their groups and syntagmas, which, depending on the content, can be long and short. Thus, the moments of inhalation (speech pause), the amount of air taken in, and the intensity of its expenditure cannot follow each other in a monotonous rhythmic sequence.

In speech breathing, exhalation is the most important and active link of the entire process; it is much longer than inhalation - 1:20 or even 1:30; the sequence of phases changes as follows: inhalation - stop - exhalation. Inhalation will occur mainly through the mouth (the path of inhaled air through the mouth is shorter and wider than through the nose, so it occurs faster and more discreetly). In addition, when inhaling through the mouth, the velum palatine remains raised, which corresponds to its position when pronouncing most speech sounds.

The entire breathing process becomes more voluntary. During the stop, air is retained in the chest, and then a gradual controlled exhalation occurs. Not only the duration of exhalation is important, but also its smoothness and ease. In order for this or that movement to be smooth, elastic, it is necessary that both agonists (in in this case inhalers), which remain tense at the end of inhalation), and antagonists, i.e. muscles acting in the opposite direction (in this case, exhalers). The described phenomenon is called respiratory support.

The child first uses vital breathing skills in speech, and only in the process speech development under the influence of the speech of those around him, he develops speech breathing. In cases of early-onset speech pathology, breathing often remains at the vital level.

The vocal section consists of the larynx (Fig. 4). The larynx borders the pharynx at the top and the trachea at the bottom and is a cone-shaped tube consisting of several cartilages. The entire anterior and most of the posterior surface of the larynx is formed by the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. They are connected to each other by ligaments and muscles. The larynx, through various muscles, is attached above to the pharynx and hyoid bone and below to the sternum. The hyoid bone, in turn, is attached by muscles below to the larynx and to the sternum, and above to lower jaw And temporal bone skulls Thus, movements of the larynx, pharynx, mandible and tongue can influence the position of each of these organs.

The opening leading into the larynx from the pharyngeal cavity is called the laryngeal inlet. It is formed in front by the epiglottis, behind by arytenoid cartilages, and on the sides by aryepiglottic folds (muscles).

The epiglottis consists of cartilaginous tissue shaped like a sheet. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: falling backward and downward during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.

Inside the larynx, at some distance from the entrance to it, there is a glottis formed by the vocal cords. (The vocal cords are located at the level of the base of the arytenoid cartilages.) They are formed by the thick thyroarytenoid muscle, which diverges on both sides of the lumen of the larynx (in the horizontal direction). With their mass, the vocal cords almost completely cover the lumen of the larynx, leaving a relatively narrow glottis (Fig. 5, a). When inhaling, the glottis expands and takes the form of a triangle (Fig. 5, b), with its top facing forward and its base facing backward. When you exhale, the gap narrows.

Outward from the vocal cords, slightly above them, in the same direction go the so-called false vocal cords, which are two folds of the mucous membrane covering the submucosal tissue and a small muscle bundle. Normally, the false vocal cords take some part in closing and opening the glottis, but they move sluggishly and do not move closer to each other.

The vocal cords have a special muscle structure, different from the structure of other muscles. Due to the special structure of the muscles, the vocal cords can vibrate either with their entire mass or just one part, for example, half, third, edges, etc. While part of the vocal muscle vibrates, the rest of the muscle mass can be in a state of complete rest . Those muscle fibers vocal cords, which run in an oblique direction, compress a certain area of the vocal muscle and cause only one or another segment of it to vibrate (they play the role of mufflers). The activity of all these internal laryngeal muscles ensures the generation of sound.

The external laryngeal muscles surround the larynx and hold it at a certain level, which is extremely necessary, since the air exhaled from the lungs with one force or another tends to lift the larynx upward, and without fixing the larynx in a low position, voice formation becomes impossible. Fixation of the larynx is possible due to the tension of mutually oppositely acting muscles that attach it to the hyoid and sternum bones. Its low position depends on the position of the lower jaw, tongue and the degree of tension of the muscles of the pharynx and pharynx: a) when the lower jaw is not sufficiently lowered, the hyoid bone, and with it the larynx, rises upward; b) the tongue, hunched over and moved away from the front teeth, also pulls the hyoid bone and larynx upward thanks to the muscle connecting the tongue to the hyoid bone; c) the elevation of the larynx is also facilitated by excessive tension of the velopharyngeal muscle.

Articulation department (Fig. 6). The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palate. Active bodies are the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw.

The main organ of articulation is the tongue. It is customary to distinguish a group of external muscles of the tongue and a group of internal muscles of the tongue.
External muscles of the tongue (Fig. 7).

Genioglossus muscle (paired) - the strongest muscle of the tongue, making up the bulk of its mass. From the mental tubercle of the mandible, its lower fibers run horizontally to the base of the tongue and the body of the hyoid bone. As they contract, they push the tongue forward and lift it slightly. Most of the muscle fibers extend from the same mental tubercle in a fan-shaped manner to the back of the tongue, from its tip to the root. These fibers pull the tongue, especially the front part, back and down. The presence of such antagonistic fibers in the main muscle of the tongue contributes to its elastic tension, its normal tone, which protects the tongue from falling into the pharyngeal cavity during take a deep breath and swallowing.

Styloglossus muscle (paired) - long, stretching from the styloid process of the temporal bone to the tip of the tongue downwards, inwardly and somewhat anteriorly. From the level of the lingual-palatine arch, the muscle runs horizontally in the lateral parts of the tongue to its very apex and pulls the tongue back and upward, stretching it in width.

Hyoglossus muscle (paired) - a flat muscle running from the hyoid bone to the lateral parts of the tongue upward and anteriorly. Pulls the tongue down and back.

Palatoglossus muscle (steam room). The muscle fibers stretch between the soft palate and the lateral part of the tongue, entering the transverse fibers of their side. With a fixed soft palate, the root of the tongue is pulled upward and backward.

Internal muscles (Fig. 8).

Superior longitudinal muscle (unpaired). The muscle bundles lie directly under the mucosa throughout the entire tongue. Acting together with the inferior longitudinal muscle, it shortens the tongue, and it becomes thicker and wider. Can bend the tongue upward in the longitudinal direction. Contracts and bends the tip of the tongue.

Inferior longitudinal muscle (steam room). Starting from the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue, the muscle fibers go down and forward to the inferolateral parts of the tongue up to the apex of the tongue. Shortens the tongue and may lower the raised tip of the tongue.

Transverse muscle (paired ). The muscle fibers narrow the tongue and can bend it upward.

Vertical muscle (steam room) flattens the tongue.

The structural features of the muscles of the tongue, the variety and complexity of the movements they perform suggest a constantly changing, but nevertheless very precise coordination of the work of its muscle bundles.

Voluntary movements of the tongue always represent complex muscle synergies. To protrude the tongue from the oral cavity (contraction of the necessary bundles of the genioglossus muscle), and especially to bend the tip of the protruding tongue upward, towards the nose, the fibers of the same muscle, pulling the tongue back and down, must be relaxed. On the contrary, when moving the tongue backwards and downwards, the lower muscle bundles should be relaxed. Its middle bundles are antagonists of the fibers of the upper longitudinal muscle, arching the back of the tongue upward. In the downward movement of the tongue, the hyoglossus muscle is an antagonist of the styloglossus, but in the backward movement, both of these muscles are agonists.

Lateral movements of the tongue require relaxation of the paired muscles of the other side. Contractions of the fibers of the transverse muscles of the tongue (which makes the tongue narrow) require relaxation of the fibers of the vertical muscles and the bundles of hyoglossus and styloglossus muscles that run along the edges of the tongue and participate in the effect of its compaction and expansion.

In all movements of the tongue midline(forward, up, down, back) similar muscles on the right and left sides must work as agonists, otherwise the tongue will deviate to the side. At the same time, the attachment of the muscle bundles is such that in the case of the work of the hyoglossus and styloglossus muscles, it deviates towards the more tense muscles, and in the case of the work of the genioglossus muscles - towards the less tense ones.

Perhaps the most complex muscle synergies are in the process of articulation of anterior lingual sounds (stops, fricatives, and especially the trembling sound r). The subtle movements required for this own muscles The tip of the tongue is carried out under the condition that the root of the tongue is fixed by its external muscles, as well as by the muscles of the hyoid bone and neck. In this case, of course, the muscles of the vocal cords, soft palate and pharynx, and respiratory muscles work.

All muscles of the tongue are innervated by the hypoglossal nerves, only the palatoglossus receives nerve impulses from the glossopharyngeal nerves.

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ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SPEECH

Speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, inherent only to humans. In the process of verbal communication (communications), people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language, and pronounces them through articulation of the speech organs. In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be natural and accurate. At the same time, these movements must be automatic, that is, those that would be carried out without special effort. This is what actually happens. Usually the speaker only follows the flow of thought, without thinking about what position his tongue should take in his mouth, when he should inhale, and so on. This occurs as a result of the mechanism of speech production. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus.

The human speech apparatus consists of a central and peripheral part.

Central (regulating)

peripheral (executive)

Speech apparatus Structure of the speech apparatus: 1- brain; 2 - nasal cavity; 3 - hard palate; 4 - oral cavity; 5 - lips; 6 - incisors; 7 - tip of the tongue; 8 - back of the tongue; 9 - root of tongue; 10 - epiglottis; 11 - pharynx; 12 - larynx; 13 - trachea; 14 - right bronchus; 15 - right lung; 16 - diaphragm; 17 - esophagus; 18 - spine; 19 - spinal cord; 20 – soft palate.

Structure and functions of the central part of the speech apparatus

Left hemisphere Right hemisphere 1.Understanding the meaning of words. 2.Understanding the meaning of musical works. 3. Understanding the general content of the paintings. 4. Classification of visible objects, combining them into categories. 5. Voluntary memorization. 6. Formation of concepts about time, space, causality. 1. Perception of voice, intonation, melody of speech. 2. Perception of melody. 3. Perception of details of pictures without understanding the general content. 4. Isolated perception of objects. 5. Involuntary memorization. 6. Perception of spatial relationships of objects.

Structure and functions of the peripheral part of the speech apparatus The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three parts: respiratory; voice (phonatory); articulatory (sound pronunciation).

In a speech act, three interconnected functions can be considered: the formation of an air stream; voice formation (phonation); formation of speech sounds (articulation).

The respiratory section forms the energetic basis of speech, providing speech breathing, and includes: the chest with the lungs, intercostal muscles, and the muscles of the diaphragm.

Types of breathing

Physiological respiration

Speech breathing: exhalation is much longer than inhalation (outside of speech they are approximately the same); at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing; 3) at the moment of speech, the volume of exhaled and inhaled air increases significantly (about 3 times); 4) the breath during speech becomes shorter and deeper.

Voice-forming apparatus Voice-forming apparatus: 1 - larynx, 2 - pharynx, 3 - nasopharynx, 4 - oral cavity, 5 - nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. I, II, III - positions of the vocal folds with a normal voice, with silence, with a whisper.

Articulation department

Articulation of consonants Distinctive feature The articulation of consonants is that when they are formed, various kinds of obstacles arise in the path of the exhaled stream of air in the extension pipe. Overcoming these obstacles, the air stream produces noises, which determine the acoustic characteristics of most consonants. The nature of the sound of individual consonants depends on the method of noise formation and the place of its origin.

Classification of consonants The classification of consonants is based on following signs: 1) participation of noise and voice; 2) method of articulation; 3) place of articulation; 4) absence or presence of palatalization, in other words - hardness or softness

Articulation of vowels A common feature for all vowel sounds, which distinguishes their articulation from the articulation of all consonant sounds, is the absence of obstacles in the path of exhaled air. The sound arising in the larynx in the extension pipe is amplified and perceived as a clear voice without any admixture of noise. The articulatory classification of vowels is built taking into account: the participation or non-participation of the lips; degree of tongue elevation and location of tongue elevation. signs

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Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e. the structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows, firstly, to imagine complex mechanism speech is normal, secondly, take a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and, thirdly, correctly determine the paths of corrective action.

The speech act is carried out complex system organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.

Currently, thanks to the research of P.K. Anokhin, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other scientists, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas central nervous system, at its various levels and are united by the unity of working action.

In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be natural and accurate. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus.

Structure of the speech apparatus:

Central speech apparatus (regulatory):

Cortex:

* subcortical nodes

* pathways

* trunk kernels

Peripheral speech apparatus (executive):

Respiratory section:

* rib cage

Articulation department (sound-conducting):

*nasal cavity

* oral cavity * pharynx

The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).

The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical ganglia, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

1-brain; 2-nasal cavity, 3-hard palate; 4-soft palate, 5-lips; 6 - incisors, 7 - tip of the tongue, 8 - dorsum of the tongue; 9 - root of the tongue, 10-pharynx, 11-epiglottis, 12-larynx, 13-trachea, 14-right bronchus; 15 right lung, 16 diaphragm, 17 esophagus, 18 spine, 19 spinal cord

Through the system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one. Nerve impulses move the speech organs.

But this path from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one constitutes only one part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is feedback - from the periphery to the center.

Now let's turn to the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus (executive).

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).

The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea.

Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to another, main one - gas exchange). Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent.

The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is wide short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in anterior section neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people.

From above the larynx passes into the pharynx. From below it goes into windpipe(trachea).

The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and this in turn depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense they are, the lower the voice sound.

Rice. 3. Profile of articulation organs: 1 - lips. 2 - incisors, 3 - alveoli, 4 - hard palate, 5 - soft palate, 6 - vocal folds, 7 - root of the tongue. 8 - back of the tongue, 9 - tip of the tongue

Articulation department. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are mobile, the rest are fixed (Fig. 3).

The main organ of articulation is language. The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is movable, the back is fixed and is called root of the tongue. In the moving part of the tongue there is a tip, Front edge(blade), side edges and back. The tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonants (except labials). An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to the lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, and alveoli. Articulation consists in the fact that the listed organs form slits, or closures, that occur when the tongue approaches or touches the palate, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth.

The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created by resonators. Resonators are located throughout extension pipe. pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.

In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds.

So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.

In order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program. The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer - in the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems.

The concept of feedback. We said above that nerve impulses coming from the central speech apparatus set the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus in motion. But there is also feedback. How is it carried out? This connection functions in two directions: the kinesthetic pathway and the auditory pathway.

For the correct implementation of a speech act, control is necessary:

1) using hearing;

2) through kinesthetic sensations.

In this case, a particularly important role belongs to kinesthetic sensations going to the cerebral cortex from the speech organs. It is kinesthetic control that allows you to prevent an error and make an amendment before the sound is pronounced.

Auditory control operates only at the moment of pronouncing a sound. Thanks to auditory control, a person notices an error. To eliminate the error, you need to correct the articulation and control it.

Reverse pulses go from the speech organs to the center, where it is controlled at what position of the speech organs the error occurred. An impulse is then sent from the center, which causes precise articulation. And again the opposite impulse arises - about the achieved result. This continues until articulation and auditory control are matched. We can say that feedback functions as if in a ring - impulses go from the center to the periphery and then from the periphery to the center.

This is how feedback is provided and formed. second signaling system. An important role here belongs to systems of temporary neural connections - dynamic stereotypes that arise due to repeated perception of language elements (phonetic, lexical and grammatical) and pronunciation. The feedback system ensures automatic regulation of the functioning of the speech organs.

The role of hearing and vision in the development of children's speech

For the development of a child’s speech, his full hearing is very important. The auditory analyzer begins to function from the first hours of a child’s life. The child's first reaction to sound is dilation of the pupils, holding his breath, and some movements. Then the child begins to listen to the voice of adults and respond to it. In the further development of a child's speech, hearing begins to play an important role.

The child masters the ability to subordinate the activity of his articulatory apparatus to signals coming from the auditory analyzer. With the help of hearing, the baby perceives the speech of others, imitates it and controls his pronunciation.

Children who are deaf from birth do not develop imitation of the speech of others. Their babbling appears in the same way as in normally hearing children. But he doesn't get any outside reinforcements auditory perception and therefore gradually fades away. In such cases, without special pedagogical influence, children’s speech does not develop.

IN early childhood the child perceives the sounds, syllables and words of others unclearly and distorted. Therefore, children mix one phoneme with another and poorly understand speech. Very often, children do not notice their incorrect pronunciation, so it becomes habitual, persistent and subsequently overcome with great difficulty.

Vision is also essential in the development of children's speech. Important role visual analyzer in the emergence of speech and its perception is confirmed by the fact that children blind from birth begin to speak much later. A sighted child carefully observes the movements of the tongue and lips of speakers, tries to repeat them, and imitates exaggerated articulatory movements well.

In the process of child development, a system of conditioned connections arises between auditory, visual and other analyzers, which constantly develops and is strengthened by repeated connections.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution

higher professional education

CHELYABINSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL

UNIVERSITY

(GOU VPO) "ChSPU"

Faculty of Correctional Pedagogy

Department of specialties pedagogy, psychology

and subject methods

TEST

ON Speech Therapy TECHNOLOGIES

BUILDING AND FUNCTIONING

ARTICULATION APPARATUS

Performed by a student of group 552/41

specialty "Speech therapy"

Vakhitova Guzel Nikolaevna

Checked by: Golodinskaya N.V.

Art. Rev. departments of SPP and PM

Chelyabinsk, 2010

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..
1. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech………………………………………………………...
1.1 Central speech apparatus……………………………………………………………………
1.2 Peripheral speech apparatus……………………………………………..
2. Articulatory apparatus………………………………………………………...
2.1 Mouth……………………………………………………………………………….
2.2 Lips………………………………………………………………………………………...
2.3 Cheeks………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.4 Hard palate……………………………………………………………………………………….
2.5 Soft palate………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.6 Language………………………………………………………………………………………...
2.7 Hyoid bone……………………………………………………………...
2.8 Dental system……………………………………………………………….
2.9 Extension pipe……………………………………………………………….
3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. List of references…………………………………………………………………………………

Introduction

Speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, inherent only to humans. In the process of verbal communication (communications), people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Speech communication is carried out through language. Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language, and pronounces them through articulation of the speech organs.

Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, that is, the structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows us to represent the complex mechanism of speech in normal conditions, to take a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and to correctly determine the paths of corrective action.

Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions of a person.

The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.

Even at the beginning of the twentieth century, there was a widespread point of view according to which the function of speech was associated with the existence of special “isolated speech centers” in the brain. I.P. Pavlov gave a new direction to this view, proving that the localization of speech functions of the cerebral cortex is not only very complex, but also changeable, which is why he called it “dynamic localization.”

Currently, thanks to the research of P.K. Anokhina, A.N.Leontyeva, A.R. Luria and other scientists have established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers,” but complex functional systems that are located in various areas of the central nervous system, at its various levels and are united by the unity of working action.

In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be natural and accurate. At the same time, these movements must be automatic, that is, those that would be carried out without special effort. This is what actually happens. Usually the speaker only follows the flow of thought, without thinking about what position his tongue should take in his mouth, when he should inhale, and so on. This occurs as a result of the mechanism of speech production. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus.

Speech formation is one of the main characteristics of a child’s overall development. Normally developing children have good abilities to master their native language. Speech becomes an important means of communication between the child and the world around him, the most perfect form of communication inherent only to humans. But since speech is a special higher mental function provided by the brain, any deviations in its development should be noticed in time. For normal speech formation, it is necessary that the cerebral cortex reaches a certain maturity, the articulatory apparatus is formed, and hearing is preserved. Another indispensable condition is a complete speech environment from the first days of a child’s life.

1. Anatomy - physiological mechanisms of speech

The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive).

The structure of the speech apparatus.

Central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical ganglia, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?

Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of primary importance in the formation of speech. These are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobe predominantly of the left hemisphere (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyri (inferior) are the motor area and are involved in the formation of one's own oral speech (Brocca's area). The temporal gyri (superior) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perceiving someone else’s speech is carried out. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech. The occipital lobe is a visual area and ensures the acquisition of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech thanks to his visual perception of the articulation of adults. The subcortical nuclei control the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.

Conducting pathways. The cerebral cortex is connected to the speech organs by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex in Brocca's center.

From the periphery to the center, that is, from the area of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, centripetal paths go.

The centripetal pathway begins in the proprioceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are found inside muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs. Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx.

The cranial nerves originate in the nuclei of the brainstem. The main ones are: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and sublingual. They innervate the muscles that move the lower jaw, facial muscles, muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate, as well as neck muscles, tongue muscles.

Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one.

Peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: respiratory, vocal and articulatory.

The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. Breathing during speech is significantly different from normal. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation. In addition, at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half that of normal breathing.

The vocal section consists of the larynx and the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of soft tissue cartilage. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people. From above the larynx passes into the pharynx. From below it passes into the windpipe (trachea). At the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. It consists of cartilage tissue shaped like a tongue or petal. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva. Men have a larger larynx and longer and thicker vocal folds than women. The length of the vocal folds in women is on average 18-20 mm, in men it ranges from 20 to 24 mm. The vocal folds with their mass almost completely cover the lumen of the larynx, leaving a relatively narrow glottis.

How is voice formation (or phonation) accomplished? The mechanism of voice formation is as follows. During phonation, the vocal folds are closed. A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original state, i.e. middle position, so that as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, it again moves apart, etc. Closing and opening continues until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse and not the longitudinal direction, i.e. the vocal folds move inward and outward, rather than upward and downward. As a result of vibrations of the vocal folds, the movement of the stream of exhaled air turns over the vocal folds into vibrations of air particles. These vibrations are transmitted to environment and are perceived by us as the sounds of a voice.

Articulatory apparatus.

The articulatory apparatus is an anatomical and physiological system of organs, including the larynx, vocal folds, tongue, soft and hard palate, (oropharynx), teeth of the upper and lower jaw (see bite), lips, nasopharynx ( top part pharynx, located behind the nasal cavity, communicating with it through the choanae and conditionally limited from the oral part of the pharynx by the plane in which the hard palate lies) and resonator cavities involved in the generation of speech and voice sounds.

Part of the articulatory apparatus disorders is a malocclusion. An orthognotic bite is considered normal.

Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables and words.

Organs of speech articulation are organs that provide movement of the oral cavity.

Position (articulatory) - the position that the organs occupy (take) when moving.

The organs of the oral cavity and the oral cavity itself are of particular importance for articulation. It is in it that the voice is repeatedly amplified and differentiated into certain sounds, that is, the emergence of phonemes is ensured. Here, in the oral cavity, sounds of a new quality are formed - noises, from which articulate speech is subsequently formed. The ability to differentiate the voice into specific phonemes occurs because the organs of the oral cavity and the structures that form the oral cavity are in motion. This leads to a change in the size and shape of the oral cavity, to the formation of certain closures that either close or narrow the oral cavity:

When closed, the air flow is delayed so that it can then noisily break through this shutter and this contributes to the occurrence of some certain sounds speeches;

When narrowing, a fairly long-lasting noise occurs, which occurs as a result of friction of the air flow against the walls of the narrowed cavity and this causes the appearance of another kind of speech sounds.

The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile. These are mainly organs that are located in the oral cavity.

Anatomically, the mouth is divided into two parts: the vestibule of the mouth and the oral cavity itself.

The vestibule of the mouth is a slit-like space, bounded externally by the lips and cheeks, and internally by the teeth and alveolar processes of the jaws. The thickness of the lips and cheeks contains facial muscles; on the outside they are covered with skin, and on the side of the vestibule of the oral cavity - with mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the lips and cheeks passes onto the alveolar processes of the jaws, while folds are formed on the midline - the frenulum of the upper and lower lip. On the alveolar processes of the jaws, the mucous membrane is tightly fused with the periosteum and is called the gum.

The oral cavity itself is limited above by the hard and soft palate, below by the diaphragm of the mouth, in front and on the sides by the teeth and alveolar processes, and at the back through the pharynx it communicates with the pharynx.

2.2. Lips

Lips are a very mobile formation. The lips are mainly formed by the orbicularis oris muscle, which provides:

A certain state of the oral cavity (open, closed).

Provides the ability to satisfy the need for food (sucking).

The orbicularis muscle has an arrangement of fibers around the opening (no beginning, no end), thus forming a very good sphincter. The muscle is attached to the oral opening at the back.

The lips have several more muscles in their composition - these are the quadratus muscle of the lower lip, the mental muscle, the incisor muscle, the triangular muscle, the quadratus muscle upper lip, zygomatic muscle (canine), muscles that lift the upper lip and the angle of the mouth. These muscles ensure the mobility of the orbicularis muscle - they are attached at one end to the facial bone of the skull, and at the other end they are woven, and in a certain place, into the orbicularis oris muscle. Without forming the base of the lips, they provide lip mobility in different directions.

The lips are covered with a mucous membrane on the inner surface, and on the outside they are still covered with epidermis. The orbicularis oris muscle is richly supplied with blood and therefore has a brighter color.

The role of lips in sound pronunciation.

Lips are a special gate for a certain group of sounds; lips are actively involved in the articulation of other sounds that correspond to one or another way of language. But the outlines of the lips also provide articulation. The lips contribute to changes in the size and shape of the vestibule of the mouth and thereby influence the resonance of the entire oral cavity.

The neck muscle (trumpet muscle) is of great importance in speech activity. It, being a fairly powerful formation that closes the oral cavity on the sides, has a fairly prominent role in the articulation of sounds:

It forms a certain structure together with the orbicularis oris muscle for pronouncing certain sounds;

It changes the size and shape of the oral cavity, providing a change in resonance during articulation.

2.3. Cheeks

Cheeks , like lips, they are a muscle formation. The buccal muscle is covered on the outside by skin, and on the inside by mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the lips. The mucous membrane covers the entire oral cavity from the inside, with the exception of the teeth. The system of muscles that change the shape of the mouth opening also includes the group of masticatory muscles. These include the masseter muscle itself, the temporalis muscle, and the internal and external pterygoid muscles. The masseter and temporal muscles lift the lowered lower jaw. The pterygoid muscles, contracting simultaneously on both sides, push the jaw forward; When these muscles contract on one side, the jaw moves in the opposite direction. The lowering of the lower jaw when opening the mouth occurs mainly due to its own gravity (the chewing muscles are relaxed) and partly due to contraction of the neck muscles. The muscles of the lips and cheeks are innervated by the facial nerve. The masticatory muscles receive innervation from the motor root of the trigeminal nerve.

Solid sky

The organs of articulation also include the hard palate.

The hard palate is the bony wall that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is both the roof of the oral cavity and the bottom of the nasal cavity. In its anterior (large) part, the hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and in the posterior part - by horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate is tightly fused with the periosteum. A bone suture is visible along the midline of the hard palate.

In its shape, the hard palate is a vault convex upward. Configuration of the palatal vault different people varies significantly. In cross section it can be taller and narrower or flatter and wider; in the longitudinal direction, the palatine vault can be dome-shaped, flat or steep.

The hard palate is a passive component of the lingual-palatal seal; it varies in configuration and form, and the tension that is required from the muscles of the tongue to produce one or another pattern largely depends on its configuration. The configuration of the hard palate is marked by diversity. There is a certain classification of the hard palate:

1. According to the width, length and height of the palatine vault (large, medium and small sizes of the vault).

2. According to the relationship between the indicators of length, height, width.

3. According to the profile of the gingival arch (line), that is, this part of the upper jaw that contains cells for teeth. In a horizontal section, three forms of the palate are distinguished: oval, blunt oval and pointed oval ovoid.

For speech articulation, the curvature of the palatine vault in the sagittal direction is especially significant. At various forms arch, there are certain methods for forming various structures.

2.5. Soft sky

The soft palate is a formation that serves as a continuation of the hard palate, formed by bones.

The soft palate is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called the velum palatine. When the palatine muscles relax, the velum palatine hangs down freely, and when they contract, it rises upward and backward. In the middle of the velum there is an elongated process - the uvula.

The soft palate is located at the border of the oral cavity and pharynx and serves as the second reed shutter. In its structure, the soft palate is an elastic muscular plate, which is very mobile and, under certain conditions, can close the entrance to the nasopharynx, rising upward and backward and opening it. These movements regulate the amount and direction of air flow from the larynx, directing this flow either through the nasal cavity or through the oral cavity, causing the voice to sound differently.

When the soft palate is lowered, air enters the nasal cavity, and then the voice sounds muffled. When the soft palate is raised, it comes into contact with the walls of the pharynx and this ensures that sound production from the nasal cavity is turned off and only the oral cavity, the pharyngeal cavity and the upper part of the larynx resonate.

2.6. Language

The tongue is a massive muscular organ.

When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. There are the tip and anterior edge of the tongue, the lateral edges of the tongue and the back of the tongue. The dorsum of the tongue is conventionally divided into three parts: anterior, middle and posterior. This division is purely functional in nature, and there are no anatomical boundaries between these three parts.

Most of the muscles that make up the mass of the tongue have a longitudinal direction - from the root of the tongue to its tip. The fibrous septum of the tongue runs along the entire tongue along the midline. It is fused with the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the dorsum of the tongue.

When the muscles of the tongue contract, a noticeable groove is formed at the site of fusion. Muscles of the tongue.

The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups. The muscles of one group begin from the bony skeleton and end in one place or another on the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. The muscles of the other group are attached at both ends to various parts of the mucous membrane. Contraction of the muscles of the first group ensures the movement of the tongue as a whole; when the muscles of the second group contract, the shape and position of individual parts of the tongue change. All muscles of the tongue are paired.

The first group of muscles of the tongue includes:

1. genioglossus muscle: begins on the inner surface of the lower jaw; its fibers, spreading out like a fan, go up and back and are attached to the back of the tongue in the region of its root; The purpose of this muscle is to push the tongue forward.

2. hyoglossus muscle: starts from the hyoid bone, located below the tongue and posterior to it; the fibers of this muscle run in the form of a fan upward and forward, attaching to the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue; purpose is to push the tongue down.

3. Styloglossus muscle: begins in the form of a thin bundle from the styloid process, located at the base of the skull, goes forward, enters the edge of the tongue and goes to the midline towards the muscle of the same name on the opposite side; this muscle is the antagonist of the first: it retracts the tongue into the oral cavity.

The second group of muscles of the tongue includes:

1. the superior longitudinal muscle of the tongue, located under the mucous membrane of the dorsum of the tongue; its fibers end in the mucous membrane of the back and tip of the tongue; when contracted, this muscle shortens the tongue and bends its tip upward.

2. the lower longitudinal muscle of the tongue, which is a long narrow bundle located under the mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue; contracting, the tongue hunches and bends its tip downwards.

3. transverse muscle of the tongue, consisting of several bundles, which, starting on the septum of the tongue, pass through a mass of longitudinal fibers and are attached to the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the lateral edge of the tongue; The purpose of the muscle is to reduce the transverse size of the tongue.

The complexly intertwined system of tongue muscles and the variety of their attachment points provide the ability to change the shape, position and tension of the tongue within a wide range, which plays a large role in the process of pronunciation of speech sounds, and also in the processes of chewing and swallowing.

The floor of the oral cavity is formed by the muscular-membranous wall, which runs from the edge of the lower jaw to the hyoid bone.

The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold on the midline - the frenulum of the tongue.

The tongue receives motor innervation from the hypoglossal nerve, sensory innervation from the trigeminal nerve, and taste fibers from the glossopharyngeal nerve.

Hyoid bone

The hyoid bone plays an active role in the process of tongue motility, since the hyoid bone is one of the supporting points of the tongue. It is located along the midline of the neck, just below and posterior to the chin. This bone serves as the attachment point not only for the skeletal muscles of the tongue, but also for the muscles that form the diaphragm or the lower wall of the oral cavity.

The hyoid bone, together with the muscle formations, ensures a change in the oral cavity in its shape and size, and therefore takes part in the resonator function.

Dental system

The dental system is a direct continuation of the palatine vault - this is the system of dental crowns.

The teeth are arranged in the form of two arches (upper and lower) and are strengthened in the alveoli (cells) of the upper and lower jaws.

In each tooth there is a crown protruding from the jaw cell and a root sitting in the cell; Between the crown and the root there is a slightly narrowed place - the neck of the tooth. Based on the shape of the crown, teeth are divided into incisors, canines, small molars and large molars. Incisors and canines belong to the front, or frontal, teeth, molars - to the back. The front teeth are single-rooted, the back teeth are two or three-rooted.

Teeth first appear 6-8 months after birth. These are the so-called temporary, or milk, teeth. The eruption of baby teeth ends by 2.5-3 years. By this time there are 20 of them: 10 in each jaw arch (4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small molars). The replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones begins at the 7th year and ends at 13-14 years, with the exception of the last molars, the so-called wisdom teeth, which erupt at 18-20 years, and sometimes later.

There are 32 permanent teeth (16 teeth in each jaw arch, including 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small molars and 6 large molars).

The process of tooth formation affects the configuration of the palatine vault. So, with premature loss baby tooth and delay in permanent eruption leads to disruption of the development of the dental arch and dental process. When the loss of baby teeth is delayed, and the permanent teeth erupt in a timely manner, the gingival arch becomes curvature, which leads to the protrusion of individual teeth from the upper row. The bite is often disturbed (this is the relative position of the upper and lower dentition with the jaws closed).

Types of bite:

1. Orthognathia. It occurs when the front teeth protrude above the back teeth. In this case, the rows of the upper and lower jaws are in contact with each other. This is the most favorable type of bite for speech activity.

2. Prognathia. It is observed when the upper front teeth protrude forward and the lower teeth are pushed back.

In this case, the teeth do not contact each other, and when they are closed, a space is formed between them with a downward exit.

3. Progeny. It is observed when the lower jaw is pushed forward, and the upper jaw in its front part is pushed back. The upper front teeth do not reach the lower ones and when they close, a gap forms between them.

4. Open bite - a space appears between the anterior upper and lower teeth. Wherein lateral teeth their surfaces do not contact each other.

5. Direct bite - the teeth are absolutely symmetrical and contact each other along the entire length of the dentition.

6. Open lateral bite - the lateral teeth have defined gap-like spaces, while the anterior teeth may have a normal relationship.

7. Deep bite - lowering upper jaw down, in this case there is contact between the inner surface of the teeth of the upper jaw and the outer surfaces of the teeth of the outer jaw.

The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created thanks to resonators. Resonators are located throughout the extension pipe.

Extension pipe

The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.

In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals, the pharynx and mouth cavities are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - the extension tube. It performs the important function of a speech resonator.

Due to its structure, the extension pipe can vary in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance. As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when pronouncing a sound A the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and elongates. And when pronouncing a sound And On the contrary, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands.

The larynx alone does not create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral, nasal).

When producing speech sounds, the extension pipe performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx).

The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures between these organs broken by a stream of air.

Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed.

When the tone vibrator is turned on simultaneously (vibration of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorant consonants are formed.

The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all sounds of the Russian language.

Thus, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.

Conclusion

Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result, certain speech sounds arise and oral (or expressive) speech is formed.

Nerve impulses coming from the central speech apparatus set the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus in motion. But there is also feedback. How is it carried out? This connection functions in two directions: the kinesthetic and auditory pathways. For the correct implementation of a speech act, control is necessary: 1) with the help of hearing; 2) through kinesthetic sensations. In this case, a particularly important role belongs to kinesthetic sensations going to the cerebral cortex from the speech organs. It is kinesthetic control that allows you to prevent an error and make an amendment before the sound is pronounced. Auditory control operates only at the moment of pronouncing a sound. Thanks to auditory control, a person notices an error. To eliminate the error, you need to correct the articulation and control it. Return impulses go from the speech organs to the center, where it is controlled at what position of the speech organs the error occurred. An impulse is then sent from the center, which causes precise articulation. And again the opposite impulse arises - about the achieved result. This continues until articulation and auditory control are matched. We can say that feedback functions as if in a ring - impulses go from the center to the periphery and then from the periphery to the center. This is how feedback is provided and a second signaling system is formed. An important role here belongs to systems of temporary neural connections - dynamic stereotypes that arise due to repeated perception of language elements (phonetic, lexical and grammatical) and pronunciation. The feedback system ensures automatic regulation of the functioning of the speech organs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Wiesel T.G. Fundamentals of neuropsychology. – M.: AST, 2006.

Zhinkin N.I. Mechanisms of speech. – M., 1958.

Speech therapy: Textbook for students. defectol. fak. ped. higher textbook institutions / Ed. Volkova L.S. – 5th ed., revised. and additional – M.: VLADOS, 2004. – 704 p.: ill.

Conceptual and terminological dictionary of speech therapist / Ed. V.I. Seliverstova. - M.: Humanitarian Publishing Center VLADOS, 1997. - 400 p.

Pravdina O.V. Logopedia. - M.: Education, 1973. - 272 p.

Rudenko V.I. Speech therapy. Practical guide for speech therapists, students and parents / V. I. Rudenko. – Ed. 4th. – Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2006. – 288 p.

A speech therapist needs to know: the anatomical and physiological mechanisms underlying speech activity and their changes in cases of pathology; patterns of language and its development in a child and the relationship with speech development, general principles pedagogical impact.

Examination of the sound side of a child’s speech is an important link in common system speech activity. The formation of the pronunciation side of speech is a complex process during which a child learns to perceive sounding speech addressed to him and control his speech organs to reproduce it.

Mastery of the sound side of the native language occurs in two interrelated directions:

· The child masters articulation, i.e. movement and position of the speech organs necessary for pronouncing sounds;

· And at the same time masters the system of differentiated signs necessary to distinguish them.

Thus, the formation of sound pronunciation depends on the degree of formation of kinesthetic and phonemic perception (Kinesthetics is a formed image of the movements of the organs of articulation). And also from their interaction with each other.

Under defects in sound pronunciation one should understand stable individual deviations from the norm in the pronunciation of speech sounds, caused by specific reasons and requiring special speech therapy assistance to overcome.

In most cases, speech pathology is associated with damage to the speech organs. For this reason, it is important to understand which parts of the speech apparatus are affected and how deeply they are damaged. The nature of such damage largely determines the content of work aimed at overcoming speech disorders.

Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech

Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions of a person, provided by the activity of the brain.

Back at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a generally accepted point of view when the function of speech was associated with the existence of special “isolated speech centers” in the brain.

At present, largely in connection with the successes of Russian physiology, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas of the central nervous system and at its various levels and are combined between constitute the unity of working action.

Understanding the role of individual private brain systems in its holistic activity allows us to conduct a systemic analysis of speech disorders.

Selective disorders of the speech functional system develop in connection with organic lesions of the brain of a focal nature due to trauma, inflammatory and vascular diseases, etc. and are always accompanied by functional neurodynamic disorders in structures adjacent or even quite distant from the lesion.

Functional speech disorders are associated with pathological changes in the course of basic nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) and especially with disturbances in their mobility. In some cases, these disorders are a consequence of temporary inhibition of individual parts of the speech functional system and are easily recorded as incorrect speech skills. In other cases, speech disorders can be determined entirely only functional disorders, as exemplified by many cases of stuttering, accelerated speech rate, incorrect sound pronunciation, and voice disorders.

Various analyzers are related to the functional speech system - primarily motor, auditory and visual.

Each analyzer consists of a receptor apparatus that perceives irritations, conductive pathways and a central section in the cerebral cortex, where higher analysis and synthesis of the received irritations occurs.

The results of the activity of all cortical analyzers taking part in the formation of speech reactions are transmitted along the pyramidal tracts to the nuclei of the cranial nerves of the brain stem of their own and especially the opposite side. Nerves depart from the nuclei and go to the peripheral speech apparatus, in the muscles of which the endings are located motor nerves(Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Scheme of innervation of the articulatory apparatus:

1 - cerebral cortex; 2 - pyramidal corticobulbar tracts; 3 - brain stem with cranial nerve nuclei located in it right side; 4 - trigeminal nerve; 5 - facial nerve; 6.7 - glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves; 8 - hypoglossal nerve; 9 - accessory nerve.

Motor nerves carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles, regulating tone and causing the muscles to contract, resulting in the production of voice and characteristic speech noises. To the central nervous system there are sensitive irritations from the peripheral speech apparatus (auditory, kinesthetic, tactile).

In the early periods of development, the child begins to master the intonation side of speech, which, apparently, may also be associated with the activity of the subcortical nuclei of the brain.

At the age of 7-9 months, the child begins to imitate the sounds of speech of others, and by one year he is already imitating entire sound sequences. This means that the cortical sections of the auditory and motor analyzers begin to function, and moreover, jointly.

Gradually, the activity of the auditory and motor analyzers becomes more complicated. A child of the first years of life (2-5 years), under the control of hearing and kinesthetic stimulation (as well as vision), learns to control his articulatory apparatus according to the laws of the linguistic environment in which he lives. He develops a phonemic sound system, which is used in different types of speech activity to distinguish the meanings of words. Finally, at primary school age, the child begins to master written speech (writing and reading), for which the visual analyzer is of particular importance.

In an adult, speech is somehow involved in all of his mental processes, cognitive activity, thinking, memory, etc. This, however, does not exclude the fact that individual speech processes (own speech, speech perception, reading, writing) are provided primarily different departments a holistic functional speech system, which is clearly revealed in speech pathology. The speech therapist must be familiar with the activities of the main analyzers (auditory and motor) that take part in the formation and implementation of speech.

The human auditory function is performed by the auditory analyzer, the peripheral perceptive apparatus of which is the organ of Corti of the inner ear, followed by the auditory nerves, central pathways and the cortical part of the auditory analyzer, located in the temporal lobes of the brain. The most complex analysis and synthesis of speech auditory signals with their generalization into the phonemic system of the language is carried out by the secondary and tertiary sections of the cortex of the left temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere.

A person perceives sounds and differentiates them by strength, pitch, sound duration and timbre, but this hearing turns out to be insufficient for the perception of even elementary speech.

This ability, acquired in individual development, is called semantic or phonemic hearing.

Hearing impairments, especially in childhood, deprive speech movements of their normal sensory basis and lead to the fact that articulations, which have lost their control from hearing, are underdeveloped in the child.

Hearing impairment can be peripheral or central.

By peripheral hearing impairments, often leading to deaf-muteness in childhood, we mean those disorders that occur when the middle ear, which conducts sound to the receptor sound-perceiving apparatus in the inner ear, is damaged, or this apparatus itself. Damage to the auditory nerves can also lead to deafness.

Central hearing loss is observed when the projection zone of the cortical end of the auditory analyzer in the temporal lobe of the brain is damaged (unilateral damage to this zone does not cause a significant decrease in hearing acuity due to the cross-course of the auditory pathways); cortical deafness develops only in the case of bilateral lesions of the projection cortical zone of the auditory analyzer, which is extremely rare.

The speech motor analyzer includes the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nuclei, central descending motor pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and peripheral nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles (see presentation 1).

For the activity of the speech motor analyzer, kinesthetic stimuli coming from the muscles of the speech apparatus to the cerebral cortex are also essential. According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlova, kinesthetic stimuli represent a basal component of speech; together with auditory stimuli, they play a large role in the formation of phonemic hearing; Visual perceptions of articulatory movements are also of some importance.

The trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and hypoglossal motor cranial nerves take part in the innervation of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

The trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles of mastication and the muscles that close the mouth; facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that close and extend the lips, grin, puff out and retract the cheeks; glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal cords, pharynx and soft palate; in addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue; accessory nerve - neck muscles; hypoglossal nerve - muscles of the tongue. The nuclei of the last four nerves are located in the medulla oblongata, and therefore they are called bulbar nuclei ( medulla in Latin Bublus cerebri). There are many nerve fibers that connect individual bulbar nuclei with each other and with other nuclei of the peripheral nerves, which ensures their joint activity.

Peripheral speech apparatus. The peripheral speech apparatus includes: organs of the oral cavity, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, chest and diaphragm (Fig. 2).

The respiratory apparatus is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. The main purpose of the breathing apparatus is to carry out gas exchange, that is, to deliver oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide, and it also simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions.

The diaphragm is a flat muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity and has a dome-shaped shape; when you inhale, it goes down and becomes flatter, which allows the lungs to expand, and when you exhale, it goes up again (see Fig. 3).

The processes of vital and speech breathing differ significantly from each other. The process of vital breathing proceeds rhythmically, in the same sequence: inhale-exhale- stop, inhale - exhale - stop. Inhalation is the most active part of the entire process. Immediately after it, the respiratory muscles relax, returning to a state of rest, in which they remain until a new breath is taken. In a healthy adult, 16-18 complete respiratory movements occur per minute. The time spent on inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same (4:5); inhalation occurs through the nose, exhalation through the mouth. The amount of air exhaled at one time is approximately 500 cm3, but the lungs are never completely freed of air; so-called residual air always remains. The rhythmic change of breathing phases occurs involuntarily, reflexively, outside of our consciousness.

Rice. 2. Structure of the speech apparatus:

1 - brain; 2 - nasal cavity; 3 - hard palate; 4 - soft palate; 5 - lips; 6 - incisors; 7 - tip of the tongue; 8 - back of the tongue; 9 - root of tongue; 10 - pharynx; 11 - epiglottis; 12 - larynx; 13 - trachea; 14 - right bronchus; 15 - right lung; 16 - diaphragm; 17 - esophagus; 18 - spine; 19 - spinal cord.

Rice. 3. Types of breathing.

Position of the chest, anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm:

During a quiet exhalation; ---- - during inhalation with costal

breathing; - - - - - - - - - - - - - during inhalation at diaphragmatic breathing; ...... - during inhalation and during clavicular breathing.

Rice. 4. Vertical section of the larynx:

1 - epiglottis; 2 - skull - supraglottic fold; 3 - thyroid cartilage; 4 - false vocal cord; 5 - blinking ventricle; 6 - true vocal cord; 7 - cricoid cartilage; 8 - trachea.

In speech breathing, exhalation is the most important and active link of the entire process; it is much longer than inhalation - 1:20 or even 1:30; the sequence of phases changes as follows: inhalation - stop - exhalation. Inhalation will occur mainly through the mouth (the path of inhaled air through the mouth is shorter and wider than through the nose, so it occurs faster and more discreetly). In addition, when inhaling through the mouth, the velum palatine remains raised, which corresponds to its position when pronouncing most speech sounds.

The entire breathing process becomes more voluntary. During the stop, air is retained in the chest, and then a gradual controlled exhalation occurs. Not only the duration of exhalation is important, but also its smoothness and ease. In order for this or that movement to be smooth and elastic, it is necessary that both agonists (in this case, inhalers, which remain tense at the end of inhalation) and antagonists, i.e. muscles acting in the opposite direction, take part in this movement (in this case exhalers). The described phenomenon is called respiratory support.

The child first uses vital breathing skills in speech, and only in the process of speech development, under the influence of the speech of others, does he develop speech breathing. In cases of early-onset speech pathology, breathing often remains at the vital level.

The vocal section consists of the larynx (Fig. 4). The larynx borders the pharynx at the top and the trachea at the bottom and is a cone-shaped tube consisting of several cartilages. The entire anterior and most of the posterior surface of the larynx is formed by the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. They are connected to each other by ligaments and muscles. The larynx, through various muscles, is attached above to the pharynx and hyoid bone and below to the sternum. The hyoid bone, in turn, is attached by muscles below to the larynx and to the sternum, and above to the lower jaw and the temporal bone of the skull. Thus, movements of the larynx, pharynx, mandible and tongue can influence the position of each of these organs.

Inside the larynx, at some distance from the entrance to it, there is a glottis formed by the vocal cords. The vocal folds are located at the level of the base of the arytenoid cartilages.

Rice. 5a. Rice. 5 B.

a - at the time of sound: 1 - epiglottis; 2 - vocal folds are brought closer together; 3 - glottis closed; b - with quiet breathing. 1 - epiglottis; 2 - vocal folds diverge at an angle; 3 - the glottis is open for free air flow.

They are formed by a thick thyroid-arytenoid muscle, diverging on both sides of the lumen of the larynx (in the horizontal direction). With their mass, the vocal folds almost completely cover the lumen of the larynx, leaving a relatively narrow glottis (Fig. 5a). When inhaling, the glottis expands and takes the form of a triangle (Fig. 5b), with its apex facing forward and its base facing backward. When you exhale, the gap narrows.

Outside the vocal cords, slightly above them, in the same direction go the so-called false vocal folds, which are two folds of the mucous membrane covering the submucosal tissue and a small muscle bundle. Normally, the false vocal folds take some part in closing and opening the glottis, but they move sluggishly and do not move closer to each other.

The vocal folds have a special muscle structure, different from the structure of other muscles. Due to the special structure of the muscles, the vocal folds can vibrate either with their entire mass or just one part, for example, half, third, edges, etc. While part of the vocal muscle vibrates, the rest of the muscle mass can be in a state of complete rest . Those muscle fibers of the vocal cords that run in an oblique direction compress a certain area of the vocal muscle and cause only one or another segment of it to vibrate (they play the role of mufflers). The activity of all these internal laryngeal muscles ensures the generation of sound.

Its low position depends on the position of the lower jaw, tongue and the degree of tension of the muscles of the pharynx and pharynx: a) when the lower jaw is not sufficiently lowered, the hyoid bone, and with it the larynx, rises upward; b) the tongue, hunched over and moved away from the front teeth, also pulls the hyoid bone and larynx upward thanks to the muscle connecting the tongue to the hyoid bone; c) elevation of the larynx is also facilitated by excessive tension of the velopharyngeal muscle.

Articulation department (Fig. 6). The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palate. The active organs are the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw.

The main organ of articulation is the tongue. It is customary to distinguish a group of external muscles of the tongue and a group of internal muscles of the tongue.

Rice. 6. Profile of articulation organs:

1 - lips; 2 - incisors; 3 - alveoli; 4 - tip of the tongue; 5 - back of the tongue; 6 - root of tongue; 7 - hard palate; 8 - soft palate; 9 - vocal folds.

External muscles of the tongue (Fig. 7). The genioglossus muscle (paired) is the strongest muscle of the tongue, making up the bulk of its mass. From the mental tubercle of the mandible, its lower fibers run horizontally to the base of the tongue and the body of the hyoid bone. As they contract, they push the tongue forward and lift it slightly. Most of the muscle fibers extend from the same mental tubercle in a fan-shaped manner to the back of the tongue, from its tip to the root. These fibers pull the tongue, especially the front part, back and down. The presence of such antagonistic fibers in the main muscle of the tongue contributes to its elastic tension and its normal tone, which protects the tongue from falling into the pharyngeal cavity during deep inhalation and swallowing.

Rice. 7. External muscles of the tongue:

1 - genioglossus muscle; 2 - styloglossus muscle;

3 - hypoglossus muscle.

The styloglossus muscle (paired) is long, stretching from the styloid process of the temporal bone to the tip of the tongue downwards, inwardly and somewhat anteriorly. From the level of the lingual-palatine arch, the muscle runs horizontally in the lateral parts of the tongue to its very apex and pulls the tongue back and upward, stretching it in width.

The hypoglossal muscle (paired) is a flat muscle running from the hyoid bone to the lateral parts of the tongue upward and anteriorly. Pulls the tongue down and back. Palatoglossus muscle (paired). The muscle fibers stretch between the soft palate and the lateral part of the tongue, entering the transverse fibers of their side. With a fixed soft palate, the root of the tongue is pulled upward and backward.

Internal muscles (Fig. 8). Superior longitudinal muscle (unpaired). The muscle bundles lie directly under the mucosa throughout the entire tongue. Acting together with the inferior longitudinal muscle, it shortens the tongue, and it becomes thicker and wider. Can bend the tongue upward in the longitudinal direction. Contracts and bends the tip of the tongue.

Rice. 8. Internal muscles of the tongue. Separate bundles of longitudinal, transverse and vertical muscles are visible.

Inferior longitudinal muscle (paired). Starting from the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue, the muscle fibers go down and forward to the inferolateral sections of the tongue up to the apex of the tongue. Shortens the tongue and may lower the raised tip of the tongue.

Transverse muscle (paired). The muscle fibers narrow the tongue and can bend it upward. The vertical muscle (paired) flattens the tongue.

The structural features of the muscles of the tongue, the variety and complexity of the movements they perform suggest a constantly changing, but, nevertheless, very precise coordination of the work of its muscle bundles.

Voluntary movements of the tongue always represent complex muscle synergies. To protrude the tongue from the oral cavity (contraction of the necessary fascicles of the genioglossus muscle), and especially to bend the tip of the protruding tongue upward, towards the nose, the fibers of the same muscle, pulling the tongue back and down, must be relaxed. On the contrary, when moving the tongue backwards and downwards, the lower muscle bundles should be relaxed.

Its middle bundles are antagonists of the fibers of the superior longitudinal muscle, which arches the back of the tongue upward. In the downward movement of the tongue, the hyoglossus muscle is an antagonist of the styloglossus, but in the backward movement, both of these muscles are agonists.

In all movements of the tongue along the midline (forward, up, down, backward), the analogous muscles of the right and left sides must work as agonists, otherwise the tongue will deviate to the side. At the same time, the attachment of the muscle bundles is such that in the case of the work of the hyoglossus and styloglossus muscles, it deviates towards the more tense muscles, and in the case of the work of the genioglossus muscles - towards the less tense ones.

Perhaps the most complex muscle synergies are in the process of articulation of anterior lingual sounds (stops, fricatives, and especially the tremulous sound [r]). The subtle movements of the tongue's own muscles required for this are carried out provided that the root of the tongue is fixed by its external muscles, as well as by the muscles of the hyoid bone and neck. In this case, of course, the muscles of the vocal cords, soft palate and pharynx, and respiratory muscles work.

All muscles of the tongue are innervated by the hypoglossal nerves, only the palatoglossus receives nerve impulses from the glossopharyngeal nerves.

Given here brief information about the anatomical structure and functional organization of speech activity should contribute to the understanding of speech pathology and the choice of an adequate method of speech therapy.

Questions for self-control:

1. Give the concept and characterize the central and peripheral organs of speech.

2. Describe the structure and characterize the functions of the speech motor analyzer.

3. Characterize the structure of the peripheral end of the speech motor analyzer (respiratory, vocal, articulatory sections).

4. Characterize the influence of violations of the structure and integrity of the articulation department on the formation of the pronunciation of sounds.