The main function of the respiratory organs is to provide the tissues of the human body with oxygen and relieve them of carbon dioxide. Along with this, the respiratory organs are involved in voice formation, smell and other functions.
The respiratory system includes organs that perform air-conducting (nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi) and gas-exchange functions (lungs). During the process of breathing, atmospheric oxygen is bound by the blood and delivered to the cells and tissues of the body. Internally, cellular respiration provides the release of energy necessary to maintain life processes. The resulting carbon dioxide (CO2) is transported by the blood to the lungs and removed with exhaled air.
The entry of air into the lungs (inhalation) is the result of contraction of the respiratory muscles and an increase in lung volume. Exhalation occurs due to relaxation of the respiratory muscles. Therefore, the respiratory cycle consists of inhalation and exhalation. Breathing occurs continuously due to nerve impulses coming from the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. The respiratory center is automatic, but its work is controlled by the cerebral cortex.
Efficiency external respiration can be assessed by the value of pulmonary ventilation, i.e. by the volume of air passing through the respiratory tract. An adult inhales and exhales on average about 500 cm 3 of air in one respiratory cycle. This volume is called tidal volume. With an additional (after normal inhalation) maximum inhalation, you can inhale another 3 cm of air. This is an additional inhalation volume. After a calm exhalation, you can additionally exhale about another cm 3 of air. This is an additional volume of exhalation. The vital capacity of the lungs is equal to the total value of the respiratory and additional volumes of inhalation and exhalation (3-5 liters). The vital capacity of the lungs is determined by spirometry.
Digestive system
The human digestive system consists of a digestive tube (8-9 m long) and large digestive glands closely connected to it - the liver, pancreas, salivary glands(large and small). The digestive system begins with the oral cavity and ends with anus. The essence of digestion is the physical and chemical processing of food, as a result of which it becomes possible to absorb nutrients through the walls of the digestive tract and enter them into the blood or lymph. Nutrients include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, water, and minerals. Complex physicochemical transformations of food occur in the digestive apparatus: from the formation of a food bolus to oral cavity until undigested residues are absorbed and removed. These processes are carried out as a result of the motor, absorption and secretory functions of the digestive apparatus. All these three digestive functions are regulated by the nervous and humoral (via hormones) pathways. The nerve center that regulates digestive functions, as well as food motivation, is located in the hypothalamus (diencephalon), and hormones for the most part are formed in the gastrointestinal tract itself.
The primary chemical and physical processing of food takes place in the oral cavity. Thus, under the action of salivary enzymes - amylase and maltase - hydrolysis (breakdown) of carbohydrates occurs at a pH (acid-base) equilibrium of 5.8-7.5. Salivation occurs reflexively. It intensifies when we smell pleasant odors, or, for example, when foreign particles enter the oral cavity. The volume of salivation is 0.5 ml per minute at rest (this facilitates speech motor function) and 5 ml per minute during meals. Saliva also has bactericidal properties. Physical processing of food includes crushing (chewing) and forming a food bolus. In addition, the formation of taste sensations occurs in the oral cavity. Saliva also plays an important role in this, which in this case acts as a solvent. There are four primary taste sensations: sour, salty, sweet, bitter. They are unevenly distributed on the surface of the tongue.
After swallowing, food enters the stomach. Depending on the composition of food, it is located in the stomach different time. Bread and meat are digested in 2-3 hours, fat hours. In the stomach, a semi-liquid paste - chyme - is gradually formed from liquid and solid food components. Gastric juice has a very complex composition, as it is a product of the secretion of three types of gastric glands. It contains enzymes: pepsinogens, which break down proteins; lipases that break down fats, etc. In addition, gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid (HC1), which gives the juice an acidic reaction (0.9-1.5), and mucus (mucopolysaccharides), which protects the stomach wall from self-digestion.
Almost complete emptying of the stomach occurs 2-3 hours after eating. At the same time, it begins to contract 3 times per minute (the duration of contractions is from 2 to 20 seconds). The stomach secretes 1.5 liters of gastric juice daily.
Digestion in the duodenum is even more complex due to the fact that three digestive juices enter there - bile, pancreatic juice and your own intestinal juice. In the duodenum, chyme is exposed to enzymes that hydrolyze fats, carbohydrates, proteins, as well as nucleic acids; The pH is 7.5-8.5. The most active enzymes are pancreatic juice. Bile facilitates the digestion of fats, turning them into an emulsion. In the duodenum, carbohydrates undergo further breakdown.
In the small intestine (jejunum and ileum) three interrelated processes are combined - cavity (extracellular) digestion, parietal (membrane) and absorption. Together they represent stages of the digestive transport conveyor. Chyme moves along small intestine at a speed of 2.5 cm per minute and is digested in it in 5-6 hours. The intestine contracts 13 times per minute, which helps mix and break down food. The cells of the intestinal epithelium are covered with microvilli, which are outgrowths 1-2 microns in height. Their number is huge - from 50 to 200 million per 1 mm 2 of intestinal surface. Due to this, the total area of the intestine increases to 400 m2. Enzymes are adsorbed in the pores between the microvilli.
Intestinal juice contains a full set of enzymes that break down proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. These enzymes carry out parietal digestion. Through microvilli, simple molecules of these substances are absorbed into the blood and lymph. Thus, proteins are absorbed into the blood in the form of amino acids, carbohydrates - in the form of glucose and other monosaccharides, and fats - in the form of glycerol and fatty acids into the lymph and partially into the blood.
The digestion process ends in the large intestine. The glands of the large intestine secrete mucus. In the large intestine, thanks to the bacteria inhabiting it, fermentation of fiber and rotting of proteins occur. When proteins rot, a number of toxic products are formed, which, being absorbed into the blood, are disinfected in the liver.
The liver performs a barrier (protective) function, synthesizing substances that are harmless to the body from toxic substances. In the large intestine, active absorption of water and formation of feces. The microflora (bacteria) of the large intestine carries out the biosynthesis of some biologically active substances (for example, vitamins B and K).
Digestive and respiratory systems-abstract
Pharynx
Food masses from the oral cavity through the pharynx enter the pharynx during swallowing and then into the esophagus.
Air from the nasal cavity passes through the choanae into the pharynx and then into the larynx. So in the throat
The respiratory and digestive tracts intersect.
The basis of the pharyngeal wall is the fibrous membrane, which is the soft skeleton of the pharynx and
attaches to the pharyngeal tubercle occipital bone on the skull base and medial plate
pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone. The inside of the fibrous membrane is lined with mucous membrane. Outside of her
are the muscles of the pharynx.
The pharyngeal cavity has the following parts: the nasal part, the oral part and the laryngeal part.
from the bow, which includes:
§ bones of the base of the skull;
§ pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil, which is well expressed in children; in adults it is
§ choanae, through which the pharyngeal cavity communicates with the nasal cavity;
§ the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, through which the pharynx communicates with the tympanic cavity;
located on the lateral wall of the pharynx;
§ tubal tonsil (steam room);
from the oral part, which includes:
§ pharynx connecting the pharynx with the oral cavity;
§ palatoglossal arch, limiting the pharynx on the sides;
§ velopharyngeal arch, limiting the pharynx on the sides;
§ palatine tonsil (steam room);
from the laryngeal part, which includes:
§ the entrance to the larynx, through which the pharynx communicates with the larynx;
The pharynx starts from the base of the skull and reaches level VI cervical vertebra.
Esophagus
From the pharynx, food enters the stomach through the esophagus. The length of the esophagus is 25–30 cm, its lumen is compressed into
The wall of the esophagus is made up of 3 membranes:
· mucous membrane - internal. It has longitudinal folds, which facilitates the movement of food through the esophagus;
· muscular - average. Consists of two layers: outer (longitudinal) and inner (circular). IN
in the upper third of the esophagus the muscular layer is represented by skeletal muscles, in the middle third
smooth muscles appear, in the lower third - only smooth muscles;
· connective tissue membrane - outer. The abdominal part of the esophagus is covered externally with serous
membrane, which is the visceral layer of the peritoneum.
The esophagus has three parts: cervical, thoracic and abdominal.
In certain places where the esophagus comes into contact with other organs, narrowings form.
Anatomical narrowings exist both in a living person and on a corpse, physiological ones are determined
only in a living person.
· I - pharyngeal narrowing in the area of the transition of the pharynx to the esophagus at the level of VI – VII cervical vertebrae
II - aortic narrowing in the area where the esophagus is adjacent to the aortic arch at the level of the IV thoracic vertebra
III - bronchial narrowing in the area of contact of the esophagus with the posterior surface of the left bronchus
at the level of IV – V thoracic vertebrae (anatomical narrowing);
IV - diaphragmatic narrowing at the point where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm (anatomical
V - cardiac narrowing during the transition of the esophagus to the cardiac part of the stomach (physiological
The esophagus is located from the level of the VI – VII cervical vertebrae to the X – XI thoracic vertebrae.
Stomach
Mechanical and chemical processing of food continues in the stomach.
The composition of the stomach includes:
· greater curvature of the stomach;
· lesser curvature of the stomach;
· fundus (vault) of the stomach;
· pyloric (pyloric) part.
The stomach wall has the following membranes:
external - serous, which is the visceral layer of peritoneum covering the stomach
The wall of the stomach has a pronounced submucosa and a muscular plate of the mucous membrane.
Due to this, the mucous membrane forms the folds of the stomach.
The shape of the stomach in a living person depends on the constitution of the person, the functional state of the nervous
systems, body position in space, degree of filling. In this regard, with X-ray
research there is a certain terminology.
Small intestine
From the stomach, food enters the small intestine, where further mechanical, chemical
food processing and absorption process. The length of the small intestine in a corpse is about 7 m, in a living person - from 2 to 4 m.
The small intestine is divided according to function and structure into three sections: duodenum, jejunum
intestine and ileum.
The mucous membrane has a velvety appearance due to the presence of villi.
Each section of the intestine has its own structural features and functions.
Duodenum
The duodenum is the initial section of the small intestine. The intestines open into the lumen
flows of large digestive glands (liver and pancreas). Food in the duodenum
is broken down by the digestive juice of the duodenum, bile and pancreatic juice
In the duodenum there are:
superior flexure of the duodenum;
· descending part. On the left surface, the mucous membrane forms a longitudinal fold, where it opens
ducts of the liver and pancreas;
common gastric duct, which carries the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum
· pancreatic duct through which pancreatic juice flows;
Hepatopancreatic ampulla, where the common bile duct and the bile duct merge
The major duodenal papilla, where the hepatopancreatic ampulla opens
in the area of the longitudinal fold;
accessory duct of the pancreas;
The minor pancreatic papilla, where the accessory pancreatic duct opens
· inferior duodenal flexure;
Jejunum and ileum
The jejunum is a continuation of the duodenum. Her loops lie at the top left
abdominal cavity in the left mesenteric sinus. There are fewer circular folds in the mucosa of the small intestine than in
duodenum. There are a large number of solitary follicles.
The ileum is a continuation of the jejunum and the final section of the entire small intestine.
Located in the right mesenteric sinus. In the mucous membrane of the ileum, circular folds become
less than in the jejunum. They are not found in the final section. Many group follicles,
located on the free edge of the intestine.
Colon
The large intestine is the final section digestive system. Processes end there
digestion, feces are formed and excreted.
The structure of the wall of the large intestine is similar to the structure of the small intestine, but it has its own characteristics.
In the colon, longitudinal muscle fibers are concentrated into three bands:
· into the mesenteric band, to which the intestinal mesentery is attached;
· into the omental band - the place of attachment of the greater omentum;
· into a free tape located on the free front surface.
Since the length of the tapes is less than the length of the intestine, protrusions of the colon wall are formed between the tapes.
Sections of the colon:
· cecum, covered with peritoneum on all sides and without a mesentery;
· vermiform appendix - outgrowth of the cecum; covered with peritoneum on all sides and has a mesentery;
· ascending colon, covered with peritoneum on three sides;
right bend colon;
· transverse colon, covered with peritoneum on all sides and having a mesentery;
· left flexure of the colon;
· descending colon, covered with peritoneum on three sides;
· sigmoid colon, covered with peritoneum on all sides and having a mesentery;
In the large intestine, the circular layer of the muscular layer is strengthened in places (between the haustra and especially on
boundaries of various parts of the large intestine, where physiological pulps are formed, determined only in
living person during intestinal activity). X-ray examination of the colon
strengthening of the circular layer of the muscular layer at the border of different parts of the intestine gives a picture
physiological narrowings that are noticeable only during contraction of the muscle membrane (physiological
The cecum and appendix are the initial sections of the large intestine. Located on the right
iliac fossa. All muscle lines converge on the posterior inferior surface of the cecum. In this place
the vermiform appendix comes off.
Since the cecum is located in the subhepatic region, options for its location are possible
in the right hypochondrium under the liver; in the right iliac fossa (the most common position); at
entrance to the pelvis.
The ascending colon is a continuation of the cecum. Located in the right side
abdominal area. The posterior surface of the ascending colon is adjacent to the posterior abdominal wall and is not covered
The transverse colon is located transversely in the abdominal cavity in the form of an arc, with a convexity
directed downwards. It is covered on all sides by peritoneum, which is attached to the posterior abdominal wall.
The position of the transverse colon often varies.
The descending colon is located in the left lateral region of the abdomen. Its back surface is not
The sigmoid colon is located in the left iliac fossa, at the level of the sacroiliac joint
passes into the rectum. It is covered on all sides by peritoneum and has a mesentery, which is attached to
posterior abdominal wall. This contributes to greater mobility of the sigmoid colon.
The rectum is the final section of the large intestine, located in the pelvic cavity. Its function is
accumulation and excretion of feces.
Liver
Directly connected to the digestive tube are the large digestive glands (liver,
pancreas), the ducts of which open into the duodenum.
The liver is the largest digestive gland. Main functions of the liver:
hematopoietic function - in the embryonic period, the formation of red blood cells occurs in it
· production of blood clotting factors;
· formation of bile - in the postembryonic period, bile bile are formed from destroyed hemoglobin
pigments that are bile;
· protective function - liver cells are capable of phagocytosis, therefore the liver is classified as an organ
· barrier function - neutralization of metabolic products;
There are right and left lobes of the liver.
The liver lobes are divided into segments. An organ segment is an independent unit,
which can be removed surgically. A liver segment is an area that has a separate
blood supply, lymph formation, bile outflow and innervation.
The segments consist of lobules, which are the structural and functional units of the liver. Borders
between the lobules of the liver form bile ducts, blood and lymphatic vessels.
The upper border of the right lobe of the liver corresponds to the IV intercostal space.
The upper border of the left lobe of the liver is located to the left of the sternum at the level of the V intercostal space.
The lower edge of the liver is located on the right at the level of the X intercostal space. Next goes on the right
costal arch. Comes out from under the arc and goes left and up. Crosses white line in the middle of the distance
between the xiphoid process and the navel. At the level of the left costal cartilage, it crosses the costal arch to
to the left of the sternum to meet upper lobe liver.
The diaphragmatic surface of the liver is adjacent to the diaphragm. To the visceral surface of the liver
various organs are adjacent.
The gallbladder is a reservoir for bile, located on the visceral surface of the liver in
gallbladder fossa.
bottom of the gallbladder. It can be palpated on the anterior abdominal wall at the level of the junction
cartilage of the XIII and IX ribs;
body of the gallbladder;
neck of the gallbladder;
right hepatic duct;
· left hepatic duct;
· the common hepatic duct, which merges with the cystic duct and forms the common duct;
common bile duct leading to the medial wall of the descending part of the duodenum
Pancreas
The pancreas is a digestive gland that produces pancreatic juice and
an endocrine gland that produces the hormone insulin, which is involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
The structure of the pancreas is a complex alveolar-tubular gland with a lobular
structure. It is located behind the peritoneum (the anterior and partially lower surfaces are covered with the peritoneum
The head of the pancreas is adjacent to the concave side of the duodenum. Ahead
The transverse colon is located, and behind is the inferior vena cava and the aorta. The tail is close to the gate
spleen, behind the tail are the left adrenal gland and top end left kidney.
Development of the digestive system
The mucous membrane of the organs of the digestive system develops from the endoderm, the muscular layer -
from mesenchyme, peritoneum and its derivatives - from ventral mesoderm.
Endoderm - the primary gut, the inner germ layer. The mucous membrane develops from it
organs of the digestive and respiratory systems, with the exception of anterior section oral and anal
Respiratory system
The main functions of the respiratory system are air conduction, voice production,
gas exchange (carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed).
In the respiratory system there are:
· nasal part of the pharynx;
· oral part of the pharynx;
Wall base respiratory tract make up the bony skeleton (nasal cavity), fibrous skeleton (pharynx),
cartilaginous skeleton (larynx, trachea, bronchi). Thanks to this, the lumen of the airways does not collapse.
The nose area performs the function of conducting air, smelling, and is a resonator. Distinguish
external nose and nasal cavity.
The external nose is formed by the following bones and cartilages:
· frontal process of the maxilla;
· lateral cartilage of the nose;
· lesser wing cartilage;
· large wing cartilage;
The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum into two halves:
· perpendicular plate, ethmoid bone;
· cartilage of the nasal septum;
· large cartilage of the wing.
The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal concha into the nasal passages: upper, middle and lower. They also highlight
common nasal passage.
The superior nasal meatus is limited superiorly and medially by the superior nasal concha, inferiorly by the middle nasal concha
sink. The superior nasal passage communicates with the pterygoid sinus, the posterior cells of the ethmoidal labyrinth
bones, sphenopalatine foramen.
The middle meatus is limited superiorly by the middle turbinate. The middle nasal meatus communicates with
frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, middle and anterior cells of the ethmoid bone labyrinth.
The inferior nasal meatus is limited superiorly by the inferior nasal concha and inferiorly by the nasal surfaces
the palatine process of the maxilla and the horizontal plate of the palatine bone. In the lower nasal passage
The nasolacrimal duct opens.
Olfactory region of the nasal cavity
The nasal cavity is functionally divided into the respiratory region and the olfactory region. TO
The olfactory region includes that part of the mucous membrane that covers the upper and part of the middle
turbinates, as well as the corresponding upper part of the nasal septum. In these areas in the mucosa
the membrane contains the endings of the olfactory nerve, which are the peripheral part of the olfactory
The mucous membrane covering the nasal cavity continues into the mucous membrane of the paranasal sinuses. Their
function is similar to that of the nasal cavity: warming, humidifying and purifying the air, they are
resonators. The paranasal sinuses reduce the weight of the skull and make its structure more durable.
From the nasal cavity through the choanae, air enters the nasal part of the pharynx, then into the oral part of the pharynx,
then into the larynx.
The larynx is involved in conducting air and in the process of voice formation. At the top of the larynx using
ligaments suspended from the hyoid bone, below connected to the trachea.
The laryngeal cavity has three sections:
· the vestibule of the larynx, which extends from the entrance to the larynx to the folds of the vestibule;
middle section, which contains:
§ folds of the vestibule, between them there is a fissure of the vestibule;
§ ventricle of the larynx (paired);
The skeleton of the larynx is formed by cartilage:
· thyroid cartilage (in the anterior region of the neck, the cartilage forms a protrusion, most pronounced in men);
The cartilages of the larynx are connected to each other using joints and ligaments.
The laryngeal muscles are striated in structure. They can be divided into muscles that affect the lumen
entrance to the larynx (narrowing and expanding); to the clearance of the glottis (narrowing and expanding
The submucosal layer of the larynx contains a large number of fibrous and elastic fibers,
forming a fibro-elastic membrane. In the area of the vestibule of the larynx it is represented
quadrangular membrane. The quadrangular membrane forms below the right and left folds of the vestibule.
The larynx is located in the anterior region of the neck at the level of the IV to VI – VII cervical vertebrae.
In front, the larynx is covered by a deep layer of the cervical fascia and the hyoid muscles.
The front and sides of the larynx cover the right and left lobes thyroid gland. Behind the larynx
The laryngeal part of the pharynx is located.
Trachea and main bronchi
The next section of the respiratory system after the larynx is the trachea, which is then divided into
main bronchi. Their function is to conduct air into the lungs.
Human anatomy. Respiratory, digestive and nervous systems
From my personal experience, I see that yoga teachers become people who already have an education and perhaps more than one diploma. Mostly yoga teachers are adults who have received certain life experience and a “classical” education (economic, legal, pedagogical, medical, etc., etc.). Everyone is inferior to doctors in their knowledge of anatomy. I think it is important for a yoga teacher to know the human structure and school knowledge is not enough here, and many have already forgotten it. In my abstract I will briefly describe the respiratory, digestive and nervous systems.
The human respiratory system performs the vital function of gas exchange, delivering oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide.
It consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi.
In the area of the pharynx there is a connection between the oral and nasal cavities. Functions of the pharynx: moving food from the mouth into the esophagus and carrying air from the nose (or mouth) to the larynx. The respiratory and digestive tracts intersect in the pharynx.
The larynx connects the pharynx to the trachea and contains the voice box.
The trachea is a cartilaginous tube about cm long. To prevent food from entering the trachea at its entrance, a so-called palatal curtain is located. Its purpose is to block the path to the trachea every time food is swallowed.
The lungs consist of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli, surrounded by a pleural sac.
How does gas exchange occur?
During inhalation, air is drawn into the nose, the air in the nasal cavity is purified and moistened, and then goes down through the larynx into the trachea. The trachea is divided into two tubes - bronchi. Through them, air enters the right and left lungs. The bronchi branch into many tiny bronchioles, which end in alveoli. Through the thin walls of the alveoli, oxygen enters the blood vessels. This is where the pulmonary circulation begins. Oxygen is picked up by hemoglobin, which is contained in red blood cells, and oxygenated blood is sent from the lungs to the left side of the heart. The heart pushes blood into the blood vessels and begins big circle blood circulation, from where oxygen is distributed throughout the body through the arteries. As soon as the oxygen from the blood is used up, the blood flows through the veins to the right side of the heart, the systemic circulation ends, and from there back to the lungs, the pulmonary circulation ends. When you exhale, carbon dioxide is removed from the body.
With each breath, not only oxygen enters the lungs, but also dust, germs and other foreign objects. On the walls of the bronchi there are tiny villi that trap dust and germs. In the walls of the airways, special cells produce mucus that helps clean and lubricate these villi. Contaminated mucus is removed through the bronchi to the outside and coughed up.
Yogic breathing techniques are aimed at cleansing the lungs and increasing their volume. For example, Ha-exit, stepped exhalations, punching and tapping the lungs, full yogic breathing: upper clavicular, costal or thoracic and diaphragmatic or abdominal. It is believed that abdominal breathing is more “correct and beneficial” for human health. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle formation that separates the chest from the abdominal cavity and is also involved in breathing. When you inhale, the diaphragm goes down and the lower part of the lungs fills; when you exhale, the diaphragm rises. Why diaphragmatic breathing correct? Firstly, most of the lungs are involved, and secondly, the internal organs are massaged. The more we fill our lungs with air, the more actively we saturate the tissues of our body with oxygen.
Main departments alimentary canal: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine, liver and pancreas.
The digestive system performs the functions of mechanical and chemical treatment food, absorption of digested proteins, fats and carbohydrates into the blood and lymph and release of undigested substances from the body.
This process can be described differently: digestion is the consumption of energy contained in foods in order to increase or rather maintain one’s own constantly decreasing energy at a certain level. The release of energy from foods occurs during the breakdown of food. We recall the lectures of Marva Vagarshakovna Ohanyan, the concept of phytocalories, which products contain energy and which do not.
Let's return to the biological process. In the oral cavity, food is crushed, moistened with saliva, and then enters the pharynx. Through the pharynx and esophagus, which passes through the chest and diaphragm, crushed food enters the stomach.
In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric juice, active ingredients which is hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes. Peptin breaks down proteins into amino acids, which are immediately absorbed into the blood through the walls of the stomach. Food stays in the stomach for 1.5-2 hours, where under the influence acidic environment softens and dissolves.
The next stage: partially digested food enters the small intestine - the duodenum. Here, on the contrary, the environment is alkaline, suitable for the digestion and breakdown of carbohydrates. The duodenum contains a duct from the pancreas, which releases pancreatic juice, and a duct from the liver, which releases bile. It is in this section of the digestive system that food is digested under the influence of pancreatic juice and bile, and not in the stomach, as many people think. The small intestine is where most of the absorption of nutrients occurs through the intestinal wall into the blood and lymph.
Liver. Barrier function The liver cleanses the blood from the small intestine, so along with substances that are beneficial to the body, those that are not beneficial are absorbed, such as alcohol, medications, toxins, allergens, etc., or more dangerous ones: viruses, bacteria, microbes.
The liver is the main “laboratory” of breakdown and synthesis large quantity organic matter, we can say that the liver is a kind of storehouse of nutrients for the body, as well as a chemical factory, “built in” between two systems - digestion and blood circulation. Imbalance in the action of this complex mechanism is the cause of numerous diseases of the digestive tract and of cardio-vascular system. There is a very close connection between the digestive system, the liver and the circulatory system. The colon and rectum complete the digestive tract. In the large intestine, water is mainly absorbed and formed feces are formed from food gruel (chyme). Through the rectum, everything unnecessary is removed from the body.
The nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, as well as nerves, ganglia, and plexuses. All of the above primarily consists of nervous tissue, which:
capable of being excited under the influence of irritation from the environment internal or external to the body and conducting excitation in the form of a nerve impulse to various nerve centers for analysis, and then transmitting the “order” generated in the center to the executive organs to carry out the body’s response in the form of movement (movement in space) or changes in the function of internal organs.
Brain - part central system located inside the skull. Consists of a number of organs: the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem and medulla oblongata. Each part of the brain has its own functions.
The spinal cord forms the distribution network of the central nervous system. It lies inside the spinal column, and all the nerves that form the peripheral nervous system depart from it.
Peripheral nerves - are bundles or groups of fibers that transmit nerve impulses. They can be ascending, i.e. transmit sensations from the whole body to the central nervous system, and descending, or motor, i.e. bring the teams nerve centers to all parts of the body.
Some components of the peripheral system have distant connections with the central nervous system; they function with very limited control from the central nervous system. These components work independently and constitute the autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system. It controls the functioning of the heart, lungs, blood vessels and other internal organs. Digestive tract has its own internal vegetative system.
The anatomical and functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell - neuron. Neurons have processes with which they connect with each other and with innervated formations (muscle fibers, blood vessels, glands). Processes nerve cell have different functional significance: some of them conduct stimulation to the neuron body - these are dendrites, and only one process - the axon - from the nerve cell body to other neurons or organs. The processes of neurons are surrounded by membranes and combined into bundles, which form nerves. The membranes isolate the processes of different neurons from each other and contribute to the conduction of excitation.
Irritation is perceived by the nervous system through the senses: eyes, ears, organs of smell and taste, and special sensitive nerve endings - receptors located in the skin, internal organs, blood vessels, skeletal muscles and joints. They transmit signals through the nervous system to the brain. The brain analyzes transmitted signals and forms a response.
Human digestive and respiratory systems
Description: The tongue has a narrow anterior part and a wide tip of the tongue back root of the tongue. The middle part is the body of the tongue. Structure of the pharynx The pharynx phrynx is the initial part of the digestive tube and respiratory tract. The esophagus is divided into: the cervical part and the thoracic abdominal part.
Date added:7
File size: 707.95 KB
If this work does not suit you, at the bottom of the page there is a list of similar works. You can also use the search button
Topic: Human digestive and respiratory systems
General overview of the digestive system
The digestive system consists of a tube and large digestive glands located near its walls. The digestive tube has well-defined extensions (oral cavity, stomach) and big number bends and loops. The length of the digestive canal or tube is 8-12 meters. The digestive tube begins with the oral opening (3), which opens into the oral cavity (2), the oral cavity opens into the pharynx (4). The crossroads of the digestive and respiratory tracts occurs in the pharynx. The esophagus (8) carries food from the pharynx to the stomach (9). The stomach passes into the small intestine, which begins with the duodenum (15). The pancreatic duct (14) and the common bile duct(eleven). The duodenum passes into the jejunum (16, 19), the jejunum passes into the ileum (26). The ileum continues into the large intestine.
The large intestine is divided into the cecum (24) with the appendix (25), the ascending colon (20), the transverse colon (22), the descending colon (21), the sigmoid colon (27) and the rectum (28), which ends in the sphincter ( 29). The length of the entire colon is 1.5-2 m.
Oral cavity and its parts
The oral cavity (cavum oris) is divided into 2 sections: the vestibule of the mouth (1) and the oral cavity itself (3). The vestibule of the mouth is limited by the lips in front and the cheeks on the sides, teeth and gums on the inside.
The oral cavity is located medially from the teeth and gums (3) and communicates with the vestibule (1) through the spaces between the teeth of the upper and lower jaw. The upper wall of the oral cavity is formed by the hard and soft palate covered with mucous membrane. The soft palate joins the hard palate posteriorly. The soft palate has a narrow process at the back - the uvula. Two pairs of folds - arches - extend from the soft palate on the sides and downwards. Between the arches are the palatine tonsils (4). The floor of the oral cavity is the diaphragm of the mouth, formed by a pair of fused midline mylohyoid muscle (5), on which the tongue lies. At the point of transition of the mucous membrane to the lower surface of the tongue, its frenulum is formed. On the sides of the frenulum at the top of the sublingual papillae, the ducts of the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands open. The mucosa contains a large number of simple salivary glands.
The oral cavity in the posterior part communicates with the pharyngeal cavity through the pharynx, which is limited at the top soft palate, on the sides the palatine arches serve as its walls, below - the root of the tongue.
The structure of language. Salivary glands
The tongue (lingua) is a muscular organ. It is formed by striated muscle tissue covered with mucous membrane. The tongue has a narrow front part - the tip of the tongue (15), a wide back part - the root of the tongue (5). The middle part is the body of the tongue (14). The mucous membrane of the tongue is covered stratified epithelium, forms papillae of various shapes. There are filiform (13), cone-shaped, leaf-shaped (9), mushroom-shaped (11) and grooved papillae (10). In the thickness of the epithelium of the leaf-shaped, mushroom-shaped, and grooved papillae there are taste buds - groups of receptor taste cells. There are more filiform papillae and they give the tongue a velvety appearance. In the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue there is lymphoid tissue that forms the lingual tonsil.
The muscles of the tongue are divided into external and intrinsic. External muscles turn the tongue to the sides, intrinsic muscles change its shape: shorten and thicken. The ducts of 3 pairs of large salivary glands open into the oral cavity: parotid (weight 30 g) - on the buccal mucosa; submandibular (16 g) and sublingual (5 g) - under the tongue in the area of the caruncle. Small salivary glands (labial, cervical, lingual, palatine) are located in the corresponding parts of the oral mucosa.
The total amount of saliva secreted per day is 1-2 liters. (depending on the nature of the food).
The pharynx (pharynx) is the initial part of the digestive tube and respiratory tract. It is located in the head and neck area, has a funnel shape and is cm long. The pharynx has three parts: the upper - nasal, the middle - oral and the lower - laryngeal. The nasopharynx (2) communicates with the nasal cavity through the choanae. The oropharynx (6) communicates with the oral cavity (3) through the pharynx. The laryngopharynx (8) in its anterior part communicates with the larynx through its superior opening. On the lateral walls of the nasopharynx at the level of the choanae there is a paired pharyngeal opening of the auditory (Eustachian) tubes, which connect the pharynx on each side with the cavity of the middle ear and help maintain pressure in it at the level atmospheric pressure. Near the opening of the auditory tubes, between it and the velum palatine, the tubal tonsil is located. At the border between the upper and posterior walls of the pharynx there is an unpaired pharyngeal tonsil. These tonsils form the pharyngeal lymphoid ring.
The walls of the pharynx are built from several layers and are lined with ciliated and multilayered flat epithelium. The muscular coat consists of circular muscles - pharyngeal constrictors and longitudinal muscles - pharyngeal levators, which move the food bolus to the esophagus.
Separates respiratory and food tract The epiglottis, which closes the entrance to the larynx during swallowing.
Teeth structure, dental formula
A person has two sets of teeth - milk and permanent. The teeth are located in the alveoli of the upper and lower jaws. Primary teeth (20 teeth) appear in early childhood. They are being replaced by permanent
teeth (32 teeth). Each tooth has a crown, neck and root. The crown is located above the gum (1). The neck (5) is located on the border between the root and the crown. The root (6) is located in the alveolus, it ends at the apex (10), on which there is a small hole through which blood vessels and nerves enter the tooth (9). Inside the tooth there is a small cavity containing the dental pulp, in which blood vessels and nerves branch (4). Each tooth has one root (for incisors and canines); two or three roots (at molars). The substance of the tooth includes enamel (2), cement (7) and dentin (3). Based on the shape of the crown and the number of roots, the following forms of teeth are distinguished: incisors, canines, small and large molars. The closure of the upper and lower teeth is called a bite. The number of teeth is usually denoted by the dental formula. It looks like a fraction. The numerator of the fraction is the upper jaw, the denominator is the lower jaw. In an adult it is 2·1·2·3 /2·1·2·3. The formula for baby teeth is 2·1·0·2/ 2·1·0·2.
The eruption of baby teeth occurs from 6–7 months until the end of the 2nd, beginning of the 3rd year. The replacement of baby teeth with permanent teeth begins at the age of 7-7.5 years and ends, generally, by the age of 12-12.5 years. The third large molars erupt a year or later.
Structure of the esophagus. Mediastinum
The esophagus (o esophagus) is a 30 cm long tube that begins at the level between the V and VII cervical vertebrae and ends at the level of the X I thoracic vertebra.
The esophagus is divided into: cervical part, thoracic part, abdominal part. The cervical part is located behind the trachea, the thoracic part is located next to the back of the aorta, and the abdominal part is located under the diaphragm (see figure).
On its way to the stomach, the esophagus has three narrowings - the first at the transition of the pharynx to the esophagus; the second - on the border between the IV and V thoracic vertebrae; the third is at the level of the diaphragm opening. The walls of the esophagus have 3 membranes: mucous, muscular and adventitial. The mucous membrane has longitudinal folds.
Mediastinum (mediastenum) is the part of the thoracic cavity lying behind the sternum. The anterior border of the mediastinum is the posterior surface of the sternum, the posterior is the thoracic spine, and the lower is the diaphragm. At the top, the mediastinum connects to the neck through the superior thoracic aperture. On the right and left, the mediastinum borders the pleural cavity. The border between them is the mediastinal pleura. There is an upper and lower mediastinum. The lower one contains the heart and pericardium. The conventional frontal plane passing through the trachea divides the mediastinum into anterior and posterior. Located in the front thymus, superior vena cava, aortic arch, trachea and main bronchi, heart and pericardium. In the posterior are the esophagus, thoracic aorta, esophagus, vagus nerves, sympathetic trunks and their branches.
The stomach (gaster) is an elongated, curved sac with a capacity of 1.5 to 4 liters. At the top is the entrance to the stomach - the cardiac section (5). To the right of the entrance to the stomach there is an expanded part - the bottom or fornix (1). Down from the bottom there is the most expanded part - the body of the stomach (4). The right convex edge forms greater curvature stomach (7), the left concave edge forms the lesser curvature (6). The narrow right part of the stomach forms the pylorus - pylorus (10), which passes into the duodenum (8,9,11).
The wall of the stomach has membranes: mucous, submucosal, muscular and serous. The gastric mucosa contains folds, gastric fields and pits into which the ducts of the gastric glands open. The number of gastric glands reaches 24 million. There are proper gastric glands located in the fundus and body and pyloric. Proper glands contain main cells that produce enzymes and parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid and mucous. The pyloric glands contain parietal and mucous cells.
The greater omentum begins from the greater curvature, located anterior to the abdominal organs, behind the anterior abdominal wall.
Structure of the small intestine
The small intestine (intestinum tenue) starts from the pylorus of the stomach and ends at the confluence with the blind part of the large intestine. The length of the small intestine ranges from 2.2 to 4.4 m.
The small intestine is divided into three parts: the duodenum (duodenum), the jejunum (jejunum) and the ileum (ileum). About 2/5 of the length of the small intestine belongs to the jejunum and about 3/5 to the ileum.
The wall of the small intestine consists of a serous membrane (3), muscular (2), and mucous membrane (1). The mucous membrane forms circular folds (6) and a huge number of microscopic outgrowths - villi, about 4-5 million of them. Between the villi there are depressions - crypts. The surface of the mucous membrane and villi are covered with epithelium. On the surface of epithelial cells there is a brush border formed a huge amount microvilli (up to the surface of each epithelial cell). Each villi contains 1-2 arterioles, which break up into capillaries. In the center of each villi there is a lymphatic capillary.
In the mucous membrane there are single lymphoid nodules (4), in the middle section of the intestine there are clusters of lymphoid nodes in the form of plaques (Peyer's patches).
The small intestine has a mesentery, so it is very mobile, which ensures the movement and mixing of the intestinal contents.
Structure of the large intestine
The large intestine (intestinum crassum) continues the small intestine and extends to the anus. The large intestine looks like a frame or rim bordering the abdominal cavity on the right, above and on the left, which is why it is called the colon.
The large intestine has 6 parts: the initial part is the cecum (6), 7-8 cm long; ascending colon, cm long; transverse part of the colon, cm long; descending part of the colon, 25 cm long; sigmoid colon; rectum, cm long In the cecum and colon, the longitudinal muscular layer is assembled in the form of three ribbons (2) that extend to the rectum. Due to the fact that the ribbons are shorter than the intestine itself, its walls between the ribbons form protrusions - haustra (3). There are fatty extensions on the bands (1). The folds of the mucous membrane have a crescent shape (4). A vermiform appendix, the appendix, extends from the lower part of the cecum (8). At the point where the ileum enters the cecum there is an ileocecal valve (5). The rectum has 2 bends and ends with the anus - the anus.
The cecum, appendix, transverse and sigmoid lie intraperitoneally, i.e. have a mesentery and are mobile.
The structure of the liver. Bile ducts
The liver (hepar) is the largest gland in the human body, its weight is about 1.5 kg. The liver is located in the abdominal cavity on the right under the diaphragm, in the right hypochondrium. There are two surfaces of the liver: the upper - diaphragmatic and the lower - visceral. On top, the liver is covered with peritoneum, which forms a number of ligaments: coronoid (1), falciform (4), round (7). The falciform ligament divides the superior surface into two lobes: the larger right (5) and the smaller left (6). On the lower surface of the liver there are two longitudinal and one transverse grooves. They divide the liver into right, left, quadrate and caudate lobes. In the transverse groove there is a gate of the liver; through them the vessels and nerves enter and the hepatic ducts exit. Between square and right lobes The liver contains the gallbladder (9). The liver consists of lobules with a diameter of 1.5 mm, similar to a prism. In the layers between the lobules there are interlobular veins, arteries and bile ducts, forming the hepatic triad. Bile capillaries collect into bile ducts, which give rise to the right and left hepatic ducts. The ducts merge and form the common hepatic duct, which connects to the cystic duct and is called the “bile duct.”
The liver lies mesoperitoneally - its upper and lower surfaces are covered with peritoneum, and the posterior edge is adjacent to the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity and is not covered with peritoneum.
The peritoneum is parietal and visceral. Pancreas
The peritoneum (peritoneum) and the peritoneal cavity limited by it are located in the abdominal cavity. It is a thin serous membrane covered with epithelial cells - mesothelium. There is a parietal peritoneum, lining the inside of the abdominal wall, and a visceral peritoneum, covering the stomach, liver, spleen, small intestine and other organs. The peritoneal cavity contains serous fluid.
Depending on how the organ is covered by the peritoneum - completely or partially, organs lying intra- or mesoperitoneal are distinguished. In men, the abdominal cavity is closed; in women, it communicates with the external environment through the fallopian tubes and the uterus.
The pancreas lies behind the stomach, its length is cm. It contains a head (13), located inside the bend of the duodenum, a body (8) and a tail (7), reaching the gate of the spleen (1).
The pancreas is a mixed gland and consists of two parts. Exocrine part produces pancreatic juice (ml per day), the endocrine system forms and releases hormones (insulin and glucagon) into the blood that regulate carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
The pancreatic ducts (main and accessory) open on the duodenal mucosa at the major and minor papillae.
External nose and nasal cavity
The external nose (nasus externus) is located in the middle of the face and has different shape depending on individual, age and racial characteristics. It contains: the upper part - the root; middle part- back; the end of the nose is the apex. It consists of soft tissues and an osteochondral skeleton. The cartilaginous part is divided into: lateral cartilage, wing cartilage, nasal septum cartilage.
The nasal cavity (cavum nasi) is divided by a longitudinal septum into right and left halves. There are three nasal conchas on the lateral walls: superior (3); middle (2) and lower (4), hanging into the nasal cavity. Between the shells there are nasal passages: upper, middle and lower, into which the air sinuses of the skull open. The nasolacrimal duct opens in the lower passage; in the middle - the maxillary and frontal (1) sinuses and the anterior cells of the ethmoid bone; and in the upper one - the sphenoid sinuses (5). The olfactory receptors (olfactory area) are located in the mucous membrane covering the superior turbinates and the upper part of the nasal septum. The area of the inferior and middle turbinates, where there are no olfactory receptors, is called the respiratory region. There is ciliated epithelium with a large number of glandulocytes that secrete mucus.
The mucous membrane is rich in blood vessels that form plexuses located directly under the mucosa and are therefore very vulnerable.
The larynx (larynx) is located at the level of the IV - VI cervical vertebrae. On the sides of it are the lobes of the thyroid gland, and at the back is the pharynx. In front, the larynx is covered by the muscles of the neck, and below it borders on the trachea (11,12). The larynx is formed by hyaline cartilages (thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid) and elastic cartilages (corniculate, wedge-shaped, granular - 3 and epiglottis - 1).
The thyroid cartilage (6) is unpaired and consists of two plates that connect at an angle (7): straight in men and obtuse in women. This protrusion is called the Adam's apple or Adam's apple. Below the thyroid cartilage lies the cricoid cartilage (9). Inward from the thyroid cartilage are the arytenoid cartilages. At their top sit small horn-shaped ones. In the thickness of the muscles of the larynx there are wedge-shaped cartilages. The larynx is covered from above by the epiglottis (1).
Cartilage is connected to each other by joints and ligaments. After 20–25 years, ossification of the cricoid, thyroid and arytenoid cartilages begins.
The structure of the trachea and bronchi. Bronchial tree
The larynx passes into the trachea, starting at the level of the VII cervical vertebra and ending at the level of the V thoracic vertebra, where the trachea is divided into the right and left main bronchi (8 - tracheal bifurcation).
The right main bronchus (9) is shorter and wider than the left, it enters the gate of the right lung. The left main bronchus (10) is longer, it extends steeply to the left and enters the gate of the left lung.
The length of the trachea is up to 15 cm. Its basis is made up of hyaline cartilaginous half-rings, open at the back (5). On the outside, the trachea is covered with a connective tissue membrane, on the inside – by a mucous membrane containing ciliated epithelium. The main bronchi go to the corresponding lung, where they branch to form the bronchial tree.
The main bronchi are divided into lobar bronchi. The right lung has three lobar bronchi, the left has two. The lobar bronchi are divided into segmental and other smaller bronchi, in each lung there is an order of branching. As the diameter of the bronchi decreases, the cartilaginous plates are replaced by elastic ones, and the thickness of the muscle layer increases.
The last stage of bronchial division is the terminal bronchioles with a diameter of about 0.5 mm. (usually 8th branch order).
Lung (pulmo) is a paired organ in the form of a cone with a thickened base (12) and apex (3). Each lung is covered with pleura. The lungs have three surfaces: costal, diaphragmatic and mediastinal. On the mediastinal surface there are the gates of the lungs, through which the bronchi, vessels, and nerves pass.
Each lung deep by slits (7,8) it is divided into lobes. The right lung has three lobes: upper (6), middle (10) and lower (11), the left lung has two lobes - lower and upper. There is a cardiac notch in the left lung (9). The right lung is approximately 10% larger in volume than the left.
IN lobes of the lung segments are isolated, segments are divided into lobules. Each lobule includes a lobular bronchus, which is divided into terminal bronchioles.
The structural and functional unit of the lung is the acinus. Acinus (cluster) is the branching of the terminal bronchiole into respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli. Alveoli are thin-walled vesicles separated by a septum 2-8 microns thick. The septum contains a dense network of blood capillaries and elastic fibers. The respiratory surface of all alveoli is one square meter.
Pleura (pleura) is a serous membrane covering the lungs, the walls of the chest cavity and the mediastinum.
The pleura lining the wall of the chest cavity is called the parietal pleura. The parietal pleura is divided into the costal part, the diaphragmatic part and the mediastinal part. There is a narrow gap between the parietal and visceral - pleural cavity, containing a small amount of serous fluid. At the junction of one part of the parietal pleura to another there are so-called pleural sinuses, into which the edges of the lungs enter during maximum inspiration. The deepest sinus is the costophrenic sinus, formed at the junction of the anterior part of the costal pleura into the diaphragmatic pleura. The second is diaphragmatic - mediastinal, paired, located in the sagittal direction between the diaphragm and the mediastinal pleura. The third is costo-mediastinal, paired, lies along the vertical axis in front at the point of transition of the costal pleura into the mediastinal pleura. Fluid accumulates in these depressions during inflammation of the pleura. The right and left pleural cavities are separated and do not communicate with each other (they are separated by the mediastinum). There is an upper and lower mediastinum. The lower one contains the heart and pericardium. The conventional frontal plane passing through the trachea divides the mediastinum into anterior and posterior.
The anterior one contains the thymus gland, superior vena cava, aortic arch, trachea and main bronchi, heart and pericardium. In the posterior are the esophagus, thoracic aorta, esophagus, vagus nerves, sympathetic trunks and their branches.
The space between the mediastinal organs is filled with loose connective tissue.
Agadzhanyan N.A., Vlasova I.G., Ermakova N.V., Troshin V.I. Fundamentals of human physiology: Textbook - M., 2009.
Antonova V.A. Age-related anatomy and physiology. – M.: Higher education. – 192 p. 2008.
Vorobyova E.A. Anatomy and physiology. - M.: Medicine, 2007.
Lipchenko V.Ya. Atlas of normal human anatomy. - M.: Medetsina, 2007.
Obreumova N.I., Petrukhin A.S. Fundamentals of anatomy, physiology and hygiene of children and adolescents. Textbook for students of defectology faculty of higher education. ped. textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009.
The respiratory system can be considered one of the main systems of human life. A person can do without food and even water for a certain time. But he can’t help but breathe. If a person begins to experience problems with air supply, then his organs, for example, the respiratory organs and the heart, begin to work in increased mode. This occurs so that the required amount of oxygen for breathing can be provided. We can say that in this way the human respiratory system adapts to environmental conditions.
While at rest, an adult takes on average approximately 15-17 inhalations and exhalations per minute. A person breathes throughout his life: from the moment of birth to death. When inhaling, atmospheric air enters the human body. When you exhale, on the contrary, waste air saturated with carbon dioxide is removed from the body. There are two types of breathing (according to the method of chest expansion):
- chest type of breathing (the chest expands by raising the ribs), more often observed in women;
- abdominal type of breathing (expansion of the chest is produced by changing the diaphragm, more often observed in men.
The breathing process is of great importance for a person, which means it must be correct. This is important for normal functioning all human systems. It is generally accepted that the human respiratory system consists of the trachea, lungs, bronchi, lymphatic and vascular systems. There are upper and lower respiratory tracts. They are designed to move air in and out of the lungs. The symbolic transition of the upper respiratory tract to the lower one occurs at the intersection of the digestive and respiratory systems in the upper part of the larynx.
The upper respiratory tract system consists of the nasal cavity, nasopharynx and oropharynx, as well as part of the oral cavity, since it can also be used for breathing. The lower respiratory tract system consists of the larynx (sometimes referred to as the upper respiratory tract) and trachea.
Inhalation and exhalation are carried out by changing the size of the chest using the respiratory muscles. At rest, about 400-500 ml of air enters the human lungs during one breath. The maximum deep breath is approximately 2 thousand ml of air.
The lungs are nominally considered the most important organ of the respiratory system.
Lungs located in the chest area and have a shape similar to a cone. The main function of the lungs is gas exchange, which occurs with the help of the alveoli. Covering the lungs is the pleura, consisting of two lobes separated by a cavity (pleural cavity). The lungs include the bronchial tree, which is formed by bifurcation trachea. The bronchi, in turn, are divided into thinner ones, thus forming segmental bronchi. Bronchial tree ends in very small bags. These sacs are many interconnected alveoli. Alveoli provide gas exchange in respiratory system. The bronchi are covered by epithelium, which in its structure resembles cilia.
Trachea is a tube about 12-15 cm long that connects the larynx and bronchi. The trachea, unlike the lungs, is an unpaired organ. The main function of the trachea is to conduct and remove air from the lungs. The trachea is located between the sixth vertebra of the neck and the fifth vertebra thoracic. In the lower part, the trachea bifurcates and approaches two bronchi. The bifurcation of the trachea is called bifurcation. At the beginning of the trachea, the thyroid gland adjoins it. At the back of the trachea is the esophagus. The trachea is covered by a mucous membrane, which is the basis, and it is also covered by muscle-cartilaginous tissue with a fibrous structure. The trachea consists of approximately 18-20 rings of cartilage tissue, due to which the trachea has flexibility.
Larynx- the respiratory organ where the vocal apparatus is located. It connects the trachea and pharynx. The larynx is located in the area of 4-6 vertebrae of the neck and is attached to the hyoid bone with the help of ligaments.
Pharynx is a tube that originates in the nasal cavity. The digestive and respiratory tracts intersect in the pharynx. The pharynx can be called the link between the nasal cavity and the oral cavity, and the pharynx also connects the larynx and esophagus.
Nasal cavity is the initial section of the respiratory system. Consists of the external nose and nasal passages. The function of the nasal cavity is to filter the air, as well as cleanse and humidify it.
Oral cavity- This is the second way air enters the human respiratory system.
One of the main reasons why a person can develop respiratory diseases is viruses, bacteria and other pathogens. The causative agents of the disease are usually pneumococci, mycoplasmas, hemophilus influenzae, legionella, chlamydia, mycobacterium tuberculosis, respiratory viral infections, influenza viruses type A and B.
Other factors that can cause respiratory diseases include external allergens (for example, dust, pollen, pet dander), as well as house mites. The latter often cause bronchial asthma in humans.
The human respiratory system and many industrial factors have a negative impact. For example, if the production process uses processes heat treatment or chemical compounds. In addition, respiratory diseases can also be caused by some medical supplies, as well as food allergens.
Of course, unfavorable ecology also has a negative impact on the human respiratory system. Polluted air that carries high content chemical compounds, smoke or gas contamination of premises - all this can cause the development of serious diseases.
Symptoms of respiratory diseases:
- Chest pain
- Lung pain
- Dry cough
- Suffocation
- Cough
- Wheezing in the bronchi
- Dyspnea
- Moist cough
In acute bronchitis, which usually follows a respiratory infection, such as a severe cold or flu, the patient experiences a painful, dry cough as the bronchi affected by the infection become inflamed. This leads to the formation of a large amount of sputum. Bronchitis can recur, then they talk about chronic bronchitis.
Irritation of the mucous membrane of the nose and pharynx causes increased production mucus. When it becomes excessive or prolonged, such as after a cold, it results in a runny nose. If this process affects the lower respiratory tract, bronchial catarrh develops.
Asthma is not one of those diseases that can be easily and simply dealt with at home. Asthma requires professional treatment and observation by a doctor. In children, asthma is most often associated with allergic reactions; Often it can be caused by hereditary hay fever or eczema. When trying to determine the allergens that caused the disease, it makes sense to pay attention to factors associated with environment, and internal factors such as diet, and then move on to conventional skin testing.
Laryngitis
At laryngitis inflammation affects the mucous membrane of the larynx and vocal cords. Doctors divide laryngitis into chronic catarrhal And chronic hypertrophic. Depending on the intensity and prevalence of the pathological process, a certain clinical picture. Patients complain of hoarseness, soreness and dryness in the throat, constant feeling a foreign body in the throat, a cough in which sputum is difficult to separate.
This acute illness infectious in nature, in which it develops inflammatory process palatine tonsils and lymph nodes. The pathogen multiplies in the tonsils, after which it sometimes spreads to other organs, causing complications of the disease. The disease begins with a general feeling of weakness, chills, and headache. Then a sore throat appears, and ulcers may form in the tonsils. Typically, a sore throat is accompanied by a rise in body temperature to 39C.
Pneumonia
In pneumonia, inflammation of the lungs occurs under the influence of infection. The alveoli, which are responsible for oxygen saturation of the blood, are affected. The disease causes enough wide range pathogens. Pneumonia often manifests itself as a complication of other respiratory diseases. Most often, the disease occurs in children, the elderly, and people with weakened body defenses. The pathogens end up in the lungs, entering through the respiratory tract. If the disease is not treated promptly, death is likely.
Considering the fact that respiratory diseases are one of the most common diseases in both children and adults, their treatment and prevention should be as clear and timely as possible. If respiratory diseases are not diagnosed in time, then it will take much longer to treat the consequences of human respiratory diseases. Any drug treatment should be prescribed only by a doctor after conducting the necessary comprehensive examination.
In the process of treating diseases, various methods are used: physiotherapy, inhalations, manual therapy, exercise therapy, reflexology, chest massage, breathing exercises, etc.
To prevent respiratory diseases, it is recommended to rest 1-2 times a year on specialized kurtas. To such resorts in Czech Republic can be attributed to Luhačovice and Marianske Lazne. After consultation with your doctor, you will be offered the optimal course spa treatment, which will breathe new strength into your body.
Loading...