Laboratory studies are often prescribed by veterinarians for diagnosis. various diseases in dogs. It is difficult to figure out on your own what the numbers in the table with analyzes mean. In this article, you will find out how many blood types dogs have, and what are the normal values in a blood test.
Neutrophils and eosinophils are white blood cells produced in bone marrow and circulate in the bloodstream. They, like all leukocytes, perform protective function. Their differences are as follows:
- Neutrophils. Granulocytic leukocytes, the main function of which is phagocytosis. They are the first to react to the ingress of a foreign agent into the body. Moving towards the source of inflammation, they capture and destroy foreign cells. There are several types of neutrophils: young, stab and segmented.
- Eosinophils. Granulocytic leukocytes, which are also capable of phagocytosis. However, their main function is to participate in allergic reactions. Eosinophils are able to absorb and release inflammatory mediators (histamine), thus acting on foreign agents.
Video "We take the dog's blood for biochemistry"
In this video, the veterinarian will share tips on how to take a blood test from a dog.
Reasons for the increase in performance
Since both eosinophils and neutrophils are leukocytes, the main reason for the increase in their level is inflammation.
An elevated level of neutrophils (neutrophilia, neutrophilic leukocytosis) most often indicates the presence of a bacterial infection. Moreover, it is impossible to assume the localization of infection only by the level of cells. Neutrophilia is just a marker that there is an infection somewhere in the body and, most likely, it is of a bacterial nature.
If the dog has elevated segmented neutrophils, and the young and stab forms are normal, then this indicates the presence of a chronic infection. Causes of an increase in stab neutrophils in dogs (leukocyte formula shift to the left):
- inflammatory process;
- acute infectious diseases;
- overexcitation;
- intoxication.
If the dog has elevated eosinophils, then most often this indicates the presence of allergic reaction or helminthic invasion. Again, the number of eosinophils does not indicate the localization of the allergy or its type.
Another reason why eosinophils can increase is oncological pathology.
Biochemical analysis of blood in dogs is aimed at identifying the location of the lesion and is more specific than general analysis blood. Material for research - deoxygenated blood. The decoding of blood biochemistry is as follows:
- Glucose (norm - 3.4-6.0 mmol / l). Indicates status carbohydrate metabolism. The indicator can increase with the pathology of the pancreas and the development of diabetes mellitus. A decrease in glucose levels may indicate a tumor of the pancreas (insulinoma). In addition, hypoglycemia may be due to increased physical activity pet.
- Total protein and its fractions (55.1-75.2 g/l). Characterizes the state of protein metabolism. The level of protein increases with kidney failure or an excess of the meat component in the diet.
- Cytolytic enzymes: alanine aminotransferase (ALT) - 8.2-57.3; aspartate aminotransferase (AST) - 8.9-57.3. In a dog, elevated ALT occurs with liver diseases, very often with hepatitis in the cytolysis phase. AST in dogs is elevated in lesions of the heart and skeletal muscles. For example, if the dog has myocarditis, myocardial infarction or myositis.
- Creatinine (44.3-138.4), urea (3.1-9.2) - indicators of the renal complex. Their level rises when the kidneys are damaged, if they do not cope with the filtering function. In this case, there is an accumulation of products of nitrogen metabolism.
- Bilirubin (0.9-10.6). Level Up direct bilirubin when obstructive jaundice. For example, with cholecystitis, the presence of a stone in the biliary tract. Indirect bilirubin may increase as a consequence of hemolytic anemia.
- Cholesterol, triglycerides (CS - 3.3-7.0, TG - 0.56). They are indicators of lipid metabolism. Them increased content indicates the risk of developing atherosclerosis in dogs.
- Alkaline phosphatase (10-150). An increase in the level of this enzyme may indicate damage to the bones, liver, in males - prostate.
A complete blood count is a laboratory research, the results of which show the state of the body as a whole. The material for research is venous blood. All indicators can be grouped into 4 categories:
1. Indicators of red blood. They indicate the level of blood filling and how much oxygen the body receives:
- hemoglobin (normal - 120-180 g / l). Decreased hemoglobin levels are indicative of anemia varying degrees gravity. This means that the red blood cells do not carry enough oxygen, and the cells of the body suffer from hypoxia;
- erythrocytes (norm - 5.5-8.5 million / μl). A decrease in the number of red blood cells also indicates the presence of anemia. The level of red blood cells can rise for several reasons: dehydration, burns, increased hematopoiesis. In addition, erythrocytosis can be observed with kidney damage, since it is this organ that synthesizes erythropoietin;
- hematocrit (37-55%). It is an indicator of the ratio of blood cells to plasma. Increases with dehydration (blood loss, diarrhea, vomiting), and decreases with anemia, pregnancy.
2. Indicators of white blood ( leukocyte formula). Talks about the presence and nature of inflammation in the body.
Every owner who sincerely cares about the health of his pet is obliged to regularly examine it. The development of the disease is evidenced by an increase in alkaline phosphatase.
Elevated alkaline phosphatase in dogs
Under alkaline phosphatase refers to an enzyme that provides hydrolysis of phosphoric acid esters.
Most of it contains:
- The intestinal mucosa.
- placenta.
- Liver cells.
The largest amount of the enzyme is found in the liver cells.
When cells die and the permeability of cell membranes increases, alkaline phosphatase enters the bloodstream. It can be detected during the delivery of a biochemical analysis.
Normally, alkaline phosphatase varies from 8.0 to 28.0 IU / l.
Main reasons
An increase in this enzyme is not a reason for comprehensive survey animal.
In pregnant dogs, there is an increase in alkaline phosphatase.
According to veterinarians, in young dogs, an increase in indicators is not a pathology.
This is because their skeleton is still growing. But also an increase in alkaline phosphatase is not considered abnormal in pregnant bitches and in animals after fractures.
The level of this enzyme increases when a dog is given:
- non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs;
- anticonvulsant drugs;
- steroid hormones.
Husky and alkaline phosphatase
Do not worry about the owner of the husky. This is a feature of the breed.
Elevated alkaline phosphatase is a feature of the Husky breed.
Development of pathologies
A change in the parameters of this enzyme is observed when:
- bone tumors;
- , provoking inflammation;
- feeding fatty foods;
- calcium deficiency;
- lung;
- Cushing's syndrome;
- oncological process in the mammary gland;
- tumor pathologies of the biliary tract;
- kidney infarction;
- hepatic pathologies;
- osteodystrophy;
- lymphogranulomatosis, accompanied by damage to bone tissue;
- hyperparathyroidism.
Fatty foods affect the change in enzyme performance.
An increase in alkaline phosphatase in tetrapods is not a direct symptom of a particular disease. The animal's body can simply send signals that it needs help.
What to do
The clarification of the reason why the alkaline phosphatase indicators have changed takes place in the veterinary clinic, using special equipment. First of all, the doctor directs the animal to pass ultrasound liver and kidneys. X-rays are ordered if necessary.
You need to take tests once a month.
This will help to more accurately and quickly determine the cause of the increase in enzyme levels. At this time, you need to carefully "worm" the dog. Appropriate drugs are taken at the rate of 1 tab. / 10 kg.
After that, the veterinarian performs the following manipulations:
- visual inspection.
- Feeling of the abdomen.
- Inspection of wool.
The owner of the animal must give a detailed answer about what and at what time he feeds his pet. The number of servings also matters.
The veterinarian needs to talk about the dog's diet.
Features of therapy for elevated levels of alkaline phosphatase in the blood of a dog
In most cases, the dog is prescribed drugs that stabilize the functioning of the liver. After the end of the therapeutic course, the animal is again sent to. If the enzyme levels have increased, the doctor resorts to urgent surgical intervention. The affected organ is removed completely.
The dosage of Essentiale is prescribed by the veterinarian.
During the passage postoperative period alkaline phosphatase may also be elevated.
But this is considered the norm. At the end of this period, the indicators decrease.
After the operation, the owner of the dog undertakes to scrupulously adhere to the recommendations of the veterinarian. If the factor provoking an increase in alkaline phosphatase was hepatic pathology, the pet should be given Essentiale. The dosage is prescribed by the veterinarian individually.
home care
During the postoperative period, you need to feed the dog only the usual food.
You can give your dog boiled chicken.
- You should not abruptly switch from "natural" to special "medicated" feed well-known manufacturers . You can feed the animal with boiled chicken. A small amount of rice is allowed. If the dog is fed branded food, portions should be temporarily reduced.
- It is not recommended to change the living conditions abruptly . The passage of acclimatization may adversely affect the condition four-legged friend.
- Important to avoid conflict situations with family members . The dog is a great psychologist, subtly feeling the mood of the owner. can drastically worsen its condition and provoke an increase in enzyme levels.
- Walk your pet more often . It is recommended to avoid noisy places. If the dog has been training on the playground, you should refrain from training for the time being. The walk should be carried out at a calm pace. Overwork is strictly contraindicated.
Proper preparation for the study
8 hours before the study, you need to stop feeding. Any food can contribute to the distortion of the picture.
The results of the study can be affected by the stress that the dog experiences during the test. For this reason, it is recommended to undergo the examination several times, observing the time intervals.
- In order to avoid stress, it is recommended to invite a veterinarian to your home. If the analysis is carried out in comfortable conditions, the doctor will receive a more accurate result.
- 3-4 days before the study, it is recommended to lower physical activity four-legged friend. From visiting the dog playground should be abandoned in favor of a measured walk.
- If the owner gives his pet medication, this must be reported to the veterinarian. In this case, the blood is taken before taking the medication.
- The result of the analysis can be obtained the next day. If necessary, a re-examination is scheduled.
Preventive actions
If the cause of the increase in alkaline phosphatase was a liver disease, then at the end of the therapeutic course, the doctor undertakes to inform the owner of the dog about the prevention of relapse.
You need to watch your dog's diet.
Need to be paid Special attention animal nutrition. It is advisable to give him only low-fat balanced feed from proven manufacturers. It is believed that the dog will not eat too much. This is not true. Portions should be small.
Video about deciphering a blood test in dogs
Possible causes of abnormality biochemical parameters blood in dogs.
Albumins: see total protein.
Cholesterol. see lipids.
Biochemistry of blood
A biochemical blood test is an analysis of certain substances in the blood plasma, the presence or increase in the amount of which makes it possible to judge the disease of any organ of a dog or cat.
total protein
(+) An increase in the indicator during dehydration of the body, due to severe injuries, extensive burns, acute infections (due to proteins acute phase), at chronic infections(due to immunoglobulins).
(-) Decrease with insufficient intake of protein from food, increased protein loss (kidney disease, blood loss, burns, neoplasms, diabetes, ascites), impaired protein synthesis in the body ( liver failure, long-term treatment corticosteroids, intestinal malabsorption).
Protein fractions Includes albumin and globulins.
(+) Hyperalbuminemia is observed when the body is dehydrated (extensive burns, severe injuries).
(-) Hypoalbuminemia in newborns as a result of immaturity of the liver cells, otherwise the same causes as in hypoproteinemias.
a-Globulins
(+) An increase is observed in acute, subacute, exacerbations of chronic diseases, liver damage, all processes of tissue decay, cell infiltration, malignant neoplasms, nephrotic syndrome.
(-) Reduction in diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, toxic hepatitis, congenital jaundice of mechanical origin in newborns.
b-Globulins
(+) Increase in liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, bleeding stomach ulcer, hypothyroidism.
(-) The decrease is not specific.
Y-globulins
(+) Increase in chronic diseases, liver cirrhosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, endothelioma, osteosarcoma, candidomycosis.
(-) Decreased when the immune system is depleted.
Urea
(+) Increase in the case of acute and chronic glomerulonephritis (more often in chronic with an even greater increase during exacerbations), chronic pyelonephritis, syndrome prolonged squeezing, with malignant hypertension, hydronephrosis, severe polycystosis, kidney tuberculosis, amyloid and amyloid-lipoid nephrosis (increased urea by late stages), urinary retention.
(-) Decrease after glucose administration, with reduced protein catabolism, increased diuresis, starvation, liver failure.
Creatinine
(+) An increase in renal failure (the main reason), an increase can also be caused by: hyperthyroidism, acromegaly, diabetes mellitus, gigantism, intestinal obstruction, muscular dystrophy, intestinal obstruction, extensive burns.
(-) Decrease with significant loss of muscle mass.
Bilirubin
(+) Increase with intense hemolysis, damage to the liver parenchyma, impaired bile outflow, impaired hepatic secretion of direct bilirubin into bile.
(-) Decrease in alimentary dystrophy.
Alkaline phosphatase
(+) Increase in osteogenic sarcoma, bone cancer metastases, multiple myeloma, lymphogranulomatosis with bone lesions, cholestasis, primary liver cancer and liver metastases, extrahepatic obstruction of the hepatic ducts, liver cirrhosis.
(-) Decrease in hypothyroidism.
ALAT. (ALT)
(+) Increase in liver damage, muscular dystrophy (rare).
ASAT. (AST)
(+) Increase in liver damage, inflammation or necrosis of the heart muscle.
(-) The decrease has no diagnostic value.
Amylase.
(+) Increase in pancreatitis and reduced glomerular filtration.
(-) Decreased thyrotoxicosis, pancreatic necrosis.
Cholesterol.
(+) An increase in liver diseases, intra- and extrahepatic cholestasis, malignant neoplasms of the pancreas and prostate, glomerulonephritis, hypothyroidism, nephrotic syndrome, chronic renal failure, diabetes mellitus.
(-) Decrease in hypoproteinemia, cirrhosis of the liver, malignant neoplasms of the liver, hyperthyroidism, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, rheumatoid arthritis.
Calcium.
(+) Increase in malignant neoplasms, hypervitaminosis D, kidney failure, excess calcium intake, some fungal infections, primary hyperparathyroidism, hypoadrenocorticism, osteomyelitis.
(-) Decrease in hypoalbuminemia, primary hypoparathyroidism, secondary renal hyperparathyroidism, secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism, eclampsia, renal failure, acute pancreatitis, malabsorption syndrome in the intestine.
Phosphorus
(+) Increase in renal failure, prerenal and postrenal azotemia, primary hypoparathyroidism, secondary hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism (in cats), acromegaly, hypervitaminosis D, excess dietary intake, osteolytic bone lesions, necrosis, trauma, in young growing animals.
(-) Decreased with inadequate dietary intake, reduced intestinal absorption, hypovitaminosis D, primary hyperparathyroidism, hypercalcemia due to malignancy, diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperadrenocorticism, impaired function renal tubules, hyperaldosteronism.
Test material: serum, rarely plasma.
Take:
On an empty stomach, always before carrying out diagnostic or therapeutic procedures.
Blood is taken into a dry, clean test tube (disposable) (tube with a white or red cap). Use a needle with a large lumen (no syringe, except for difficult veins). The blood should flow down the side of the tube. Mix gently, close tightly. DO NOT SHAKE! DO NOT FOAM!
Squeezing of the vessel during blood sampling should be minimal.
A few words about the puncture of the jugular vein. Often, in practice, it happens that, after fiddling with the veins of a half-dead animal for fifteen minutes, doctors despair. GIVE UP ALWAYS EARLY!!! One of the most marvelous ways to take blood, even when collapsed, is by venipuncture of the jugular vein. Works especially well in "no" cats with uremia, when they can no longer resist. Important condition- it is better to shave off the hair at the puncture site with a blade (better visible). The position of the animal on its side. Tilt your head back (assistant). Click index finger into the jugular groove, a little massage, and ... we see a beautiful, charming wreath. Continuing to press the vein, we take blood with a 2-5 ml syringe with a 0.7-0.8 needle. Pet owners and stubborn illiterate doctors especially do not like such procedures. I never get tired of repeating: hundreds of times he took blood (and administered drugs) through jugular vein. THERE WAS NO COMPLICATIONS!!!
The main thing, with regards to, including, and puncture Bladder: is it worth neglecting the easy and convenient method for everyone if you have never done it, or are you afraid? Everyone chooses for himself.
Storage: Serum or plasma should be separated as soon as possible. If possible, centrifuge in place. The material is stored, depending on the indicators required for the study, from 30 minutes (at room temperature) to several weeks frozen (serum or plasma, the sample can be thawed only once).
Delivery: Tubes must be signed. Blood should be delivered as soon as possible in a cooler bag. DO NOT SHAKE!
DO NOT deliver blood in a syringe.
Factors affecting the results:
- with prolonged squeezing of the vessel, they increase in the study of the concentration of proteins, lipids, bilirubin, calcium, potassium, enzyme activity,
– plasma cannot be used to determine potassium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, etc.,
– it should be taken into account that the concentration of some indicators in serum and plasma is different
Serum concentration greater than plasma: albumin, alkaline phosphatase, glucose, uric acid, sodium, OB, TG, amylase
Serum concentration equal to plasma: ALT, bilirubin, calcium, CPK, urea
Serum concentration less than plasma: AST, potassium, LDH, phosphorus
- hemolyzed serum and plasma are not suitable for the determination of LDH, Iron, AST, ALT, potassium, magnesium, creatinine, bilirubin, etc.
- at room temperature after 10 minutes, there is a tendency to decrease in glucose concentration,
– high concentrations bilirubin, lipemia and turbidity of samples overestimate cholesterol values,
- bilirubin of all fractions is reduced by 30-50% if serum or plasma is exposed to direct daylight 1-2 hours,
– physical activity, starvation, obesity, food intake, injuries, operations, intramuscular injections cause an increase in a number of enzymes (AST, ALT, LDH, CPK),
- it should be taken into account that in young animals the activity of LDH, alkaline phosphatase, amylase is higher than in adults.
Enzymes
Enzymes are the main biological catalysts, i.e. substances natural origin, accelerating chemical reactions. Also, enzymes are involved in the regulation of many metabolic processes, thus ensuring that the metabolism corresponds to the changed conditions. Almost all enzymes are proteins. Depending on the reaction and substrate specificity, there are six main classes of enzymes (oxireductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases and ligases). In total, at the moment, more than 2000 enzymes are known.
The catalytic action of the enzyme, i.e. its activity is determined under standard conditions by increasing the rate of a catalytic reaction compared to a non-catalytic one. The reaction rate is usually reported as the change in the concentration of the substrate or product per unit time (mmol/l per second). Another unit of activity is the International Unit (Unit) - the amount of enzyme that converts 1 µmol of substrate in 1 minute.
For the clinic, the following enzymes are of primary importance:
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, ASAT)
An intracellular enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism. High concentrations are found in the liver, heart, skeletal muscles, brain, erythrocytes. Released when tissue is damaged.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 11 - 42 units;
for cats - 9 - 29 units.
for horses - 130 - 300 units.
Increased: Necrosis of liver cells of any etiology, acute and chronic hepatitis, necrosis of the heart muscle, necrosis or injury of skeletal muscles, fatty degeneration of the liver, damage to brain tissue, kidneys; use of anticoagulants, vitamin C
(rarely with a lack of pyridoxine (Vitamin B6).
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT, AlAT)
An intracellular enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism. It is found in high concentrations in the liver, kidneys, in muscles - in the heart and skeletal muscles. It is released when tissue is damaged, especially when the liver is damaged.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 9 - 52 units;
for cats - 19 - 79 units.
for horses - 2.7 - 20.0 units;
Increased: Cell necrosis, acute and chronic hepatitis, cholangitis, fatty liver, liver tumors, use of anticoagulants
Downgraded: No diagnostic value
Creatine phosphokinase (CK, CK)
CPK consists of three isoenzymes, consisting of two subunits, M and B. Skeletal muscles are represented by the MM isoenzyme (CPK-MM),
brain - BB isoenzyme (CPK-BB),
the myocardium contains about 40% of the MB isoenzyme (CPK-MB).
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 32 - 157 units;
for cats - 150 - 798 units.
for horses - 50 - 300 units.
Increased: Myocardial infarction (2-24 hours; highly specific for CPK-MB). Trauma, surgery, myocarditis, muscular dystrophies, polymyositis, convulsions, infections, embolisms, severe physical exertion, brain tissue damage, cerebral hemorrhage, anesthesia, poisoning (including sleeping pills), coma, Reye's syndrome. A slight increase in congestive heart failure, tachycardia, arthritis.
Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT)
GGT is present in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas. The test is extremely sensitive for liver disease. Setting high GGT values used to confirm hepatic origin of serum alkaline phosphatase activity.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 1 - 10 units;
for cats - 1 - 10 units.
for horses - 1 - 20 units.
Increased: Hepatitis, cholestasis, tumors and cirrhosis of the liver, pancreas, post-infarction period;
Downgraded: No diagnostic value.
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
LDH is an enzyme catalyzing the internal conversion of lactate and pyruvate in the presence of NAD/NADH. Widely distributed in cells and body fluids. It increases with the destruction of tissues (it is artificially overestimated during hemolysis of erythrocytes with improper collection and storage of blood). Presented by five isoenzymes (LDG1 - LDH5)
Reference intervals:
for adult dogs - 23 - 164 units;
for adult cats - 55 - 155 units.
for adult horses - 100 - 400 units.
in young animals during the growth period, LDH activity increases by 2–3 times.
Increased: Damage to myocardial tissue (2-7 days after the development of myocardial infarction), leukemia, necrotic processes, tumors, hepatitis, pancreatitis, nephritis, muscular dystrophy, damage to skeletal muscles, hemolytic anemia, circulatory failure, leptospirosis, infectious peritonitis of cats.
Downgraded: No diagnostic value
Cholinesterase (ChE)
ChE is found mainly in the blood serum, liver, and pancreas. Plasma ChE is an extracellular enzyme of a glycoprotein nature, which is formed in the cells of the liver parenchyma.
Reference intervals:
dogs – from 2200 U/l
cats – from 2000 U/l
Enhanced: No diagnostic value.
Reduced: Subacute and chronic diseases and liver damage (due to impaired ChE synthesis by hepatocytes), poisoning with organophosphorus compounds.
AMILASE (DIASTASE)
Amylase hydrolyzes complex carbohydrates. Serum alpha-amylase originates primarily from the pancreas (pancreatic) and salivary glands, enzyme activity increases with inflammation or obstruction. Other organs also have some amylase activity - thin and colon, skeletal muscles, ovaries. In horses, amylase is represented mainly by the beta fraction.
Reference intervals:
for dogs (alpha-amylase) - 685 - 2155 U;
for cats (alpha-amylase) - 580 - 1720 units.
for horses (beta-amylase) - 4.9 - 16.5 units.
Increased: Pancreatitis, parotitis, renal failure (acute and chronic), poisoning, diabetes mellitus, acute hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis of the liver, volvulus of the stomach and intestines, peritonitis, electrolyte imbalance.
Lowered: Necrosis of the pancreas, thyrotoxicosis, poisoning with arsenic, barbiturates, carbon tetrachloride; the use of anticoagulants.
Phosphatase alkaline (AP)
Alkaline phosphatase is found in the liver, bones, intestines, and placenta. To differentiate ALP activity (liver or bones), the determination of GGT is used (increased in liver diseases, and unchanged in bone diseases).
Reference intervals:
for adult dogs - 18 - 70 units;
for adult cats - 39 - 55 units.
for adult horses - 70 - 250 units
in young animals during the growth period, the activity of alkaline phosphatase increases several times and is not an informative indicator.
Increased: Fracture healing, osteomalacia, bone tumors, cholangitis, Cushing's syndrome, obstruction bile ducts, tumors of the gallbladder; abscess, cirrhosis, liver cancer, hepatitis, bacterial infections Gastrointestinal tract, fatty food, pregnancy.
Lowered: Hypothyroidism, anemia, hypovitaminosis C, corticosteroid use.
Phosphatase Acid (cf)
In males, 50% of serum CP comes from the prostate gland, while the rest comes from the liver and degraded platelets and red blood cells.
In females, CP is produced by the liver, erythrocytes, and platelets.
Reference intervals:
dogs - 1-6 U/l
cats - 1-6 U/l
Increased: Carcinoma of the prostate (in initial stage prostate cancer, CP activity may be within the normal range).
With metastases of prostate carcinoma in bone tissue increases and AP.
Prostate massage, catheterization, cystoscopy, rectal examinations lead to an increase in CF, so it is recommended to take blood for analysis no earlier than 48 hours after these procedures.
Downgraded: No diagnostic value.
Lipase
Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of higher glycerides. fatty acids. It is produced in the body by a number of organs and tissues, which makes it possible to distinguish between lipase of gastric origin, pancreas, lipase of the lungs, intestinal juice, leukocytes, etc. Serum lipase is the sum of organ lipases, and an increase in its activity is a consequence of a pathological process in any organ. Fluctuations in serum lipase activity in a healthy animal are insignificant.
Reference intervals:
dogs - 30-250 U/l
cats – 30-400 U/l
Elevated: Acute pancreatitis (may be up to 200 times normal) - blood lipase activity increases rapidly within a few hours after an attack of pancreatitis, reaching a maximum after 12-24 hours, and remains elevated for 10-12 days, t .e. longer time than the activity of a-amylase. In a malignant neoplasm of the pancreas, early stage diseases.
Lowered: Cancer of the stomach (in the absence of metastases to the liver and pancreas), with a malignant neoplasm of the pancreas in the later period of the disease (as the tissue of the gland resolves).
Substrates and fats
Bilirubin total
Bilirubin is a product of hemoglobin metabolism, conjugated in the liver with glucuronic acid to form mono- and diglucuronides excreted in the bile (direct bilirubin). Serum bilirubin levels increase in liver disease, obstruction biliary tract or hemolysis. During hemolysis, unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin is formed, therefore, there will be a high total bilirubin with a normal straight line.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 3.0 - 13.5 mmol / l;
for cats - 3.0 - 12.0 mmol / l.
for horses - 5.4 - 51.4 mmol / l.
Increased: Damage to liver cells of various nature, obstruction of the bile ducts, hemolysis
Downgraded: Bone marrow disease, anemia, hypoplasia, fibrosis
Bilirubin direct
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 0.0 - 5.5 mmol / l;
for cats - 0.0 - 5.5 mmol / l.
for horses - 0.0 - 10.0 mmol / l.
Increased: bile duct obstruction, cholestasis, liver abscess, leptospirosis, chronic hepatitis
Lowered: no diagnostic value.
Urea
Urea is formed in the liver as a result of the neutralization of highly toxic ammonia formed as a result of bacterial fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract, deamination of amino acids, purine and pyrimidine bases, biogenic amines, and so on. It is excreted by the kidneys.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 3.5 - 9.2 mmol / l;
for cats - 5.4 - 12.1 mmol / l.
for horses - 3.5 - 8.8 mmol / l;
Increased: Impaired kidney function (renal failure), protein-rich diet, acute hemolytic anemia, shock, stress, vomiting, diarrhea, acute infarction myocardium
Reduced: Low intake of protein in the body, serious illnesses liver
Creatinine
Creatinine is the end product of creatine metabolism, synthesized in the kidneys and liver from three amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine). Creatinine is completely excreted from the body by the kidneys by glomerular filtration without being reabsorbed in the renal tubules. This property of creatinine is used to study the level of glomerular filtration by creatinine clearance in urine and blood serum.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 26.0 - 120.0 µmol / l;
for cats - 70.0 - 165.0 µmol / l.
for horses - 80.0 - 180.0 µmol / l.
Increased: Impaired kidney function (renal failure), hyperthyroidism, use of furosemide, vitamin C., glucose, indomethacin, mannitol. Patients with diabetic ketoacidosis may have falsely elevated creatinine levels.
Lowered: Pregnancy, age-related muscle loss
Uric acid
Uric acid is the end product purine metabolism. It is formed in the liver as a result of the breakdown of nucleotides, deamination of aminopurines and subsequent oxidation of oxypurines. Excreted from the body by the kidneys.
Reference intervals:
dogs - 9-100 µmol/l
cats - up to 150 µmol/l
Increased: Significantly - in violation of excretion uric acid from the body (kidney disease, urolithiasis disease, acidosis, toxicosis), gout - due to an increase in the synthesis of uric acid. Slightly - when taking food rich in purines (meat, liver, kidneys), some hematological diseases (leukemia, B12 deficiency, anemia), cellular cytolysis, diabetes mellitus.
Downgraded: No diagnostic value.
total protein
The total serum protein consists mainly of albumins and globulins. The globulin level is calculated by subtracting the albumin level from the total protein level. Hypoproteinemia indicates hypoalbuminemia, as albumin is the main serum protein. Serum/plasma protein concentration is determined by nutritional status, liver function, kidney function, hydration and various pathological processes. Protein concentration determines colloidal osmotic (oncotic) pressure.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 40.0 - 73.0 g / l;
for cats - 54.0 - 77.0 g / l.
for horses - 47.0 - 75.0 g / l;
Increased: Dehydration, venous stasis. Tumors inflammatory processes, infections, hyperimmunoglobulinemia
Lowered: Loss of protein in gastroenteropathies, nephrotic syndrome, decreased protein synthesis, chronic hepatitis, hepatosis, protein malabsorption
Albumen
Albumins are the most homogeneous fraction of simple proteins, almost exclusively synthesized in the liver. About 40% of albumins are in the plasma, the rest - in the interstitial fluid. The main functions of albumins are the maintenance of oncotic pressure, as well as participation in the transport of small endo- and exogenous substances (free fatty acids, bilirubin, steroid hormones, magnesium, calcium, medicinal substances, etc.).
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 22.0 - 39.0 g / l;
for cats - 25.0 - 37.0 g / l.
for horses - 27.0 - 37.0 g / l.
Increased: State of dehydration;
Lowered: Alimentary dystrophy, acute and chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, gastrointestinal diseases, nephrotic syndrome, chronic pyelonephritis, Cushing's syndrome, cachexia, severe infections, pancreatitis, eczema, exudative dermatopathy.
Glucose
The blood glucose level is the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. Since glucose is evenly distributed between plasma and shaped elements, its amount can be determined both in whole blood and in serum and plasma.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 4.3 - 7.3 mmol / l;
for cats - 3.3 - 6.3 mmol / l.
for horses - 3.0 - 7.0 mmol / l.
Increased: diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, stress, shock, stroke, myocardial infarction, exercise, chronic liver and kidney disease, pheochromocytoma, glucangioma, pancreatitis, corticosteroid use, nicotinic acid, vitamin C, diuretics.
Downgraded: Pancreatic disease, gastric cancer, fibrosarcoma, liver parenchymal disease, insulin shock
Cholesterol
Cholesterol levels are determined by fat metabolism, which in turn depends on heredity, diet, liver function, kidney function, thyroid gland and others endocrine organs. Total cholesterol is made up of low and high density(LDL and HDL) and about a fifth of the triglycerides.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 2.9 - 6.5 mmol / l;
for cats - 1.6 - 3.7 mmol / l.
for horses - 2.3 - 3.6 mmol / l.
Increased: Hyperlipoproteinemia, liver disease, cholestasis, chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, pancreatic tumors, ischemic disease heart, myocardial infarction, hypertonic disease, diabetes mellitus, the use of corticosteroids, sulfonamides, thiazide diuretics
Lowered: HDL deficiency, hypoproteinemia, liver tumors and cirrhosis, hyperthyroidism, acute and chronic renal failure, liver failure ( terminal stages), rheumatoid arthritis, malnutrition and absorption, acute infections
Triglycerides
Feed fats are hydrolyzed into small intestine, are absorbed and resynthesized by mucosal cells, after which they are secreted into lymphatic vessels in the form of chylomicrons. Chylomicron triglycerides are removed from the blood by tissue lipoprotein lipase. The endogenous production of triglycerides occurs in the liver. These triglycerides are transported in association with b-lipoproteins as part of very low density lipoproteins (VLDL).
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 0.24 - 0.98 mmol / l;
for cats - 0.38 - 1.10 mmol / l.
for horses - 0.1 - 0.4 mmol / l.
Increased: Hyperlipoproteinemia, diabetes mellitus, hepatitis, cirrhosis, obstructive jaundice, acute and chronic pancreatitis, nephrotic syndrome, chronic renal failure, acute myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, pregnancy, stress; taking corticosteroids, estrogens, beta-blockers, diuretics, a diet with high content fat, carbohydrates;
Lowered: Fasting, hyperthyroidism, acute infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hyperthyroidism; reception ascorbic acid, heparin
electrolytes
Potassium (K)
Potassium is the major intracellular cation whose serum concentration is regulated by its excretion in the urine and other mechanisms. Serum potassium concentration determines neuromuscular excitability. Reduced or elevated level potassium in the blood affects muscle contractility
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 4.3 - 6.2 mmol / l;
for cats - 4.1 - 5.4 mmol / l
for horses - 2.2 - 4.5 mmol / l
Increased: Hemolysis, tissue damage, starvation, diabetic ketoacidosis, renal failure with anuria, oliguria, acidosis, taking potassium-sparing diuretics (spironolactone, triamterene), beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, high doses of sulfadimethoxine (Co-trimoxazole).
Lowered: Fasting, vomiting, diarrhea, renal tubular acidosis, aldosteronism, muscular atrophy, the use of furosemide, steroids, insulin, glucose.
Sodium (Na)
Sodium is the predominant extracellular cation. The sodium level is primarily determined by the volemic status of the body.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 138 - 164 mmol / l;
for cats - 143 - 165 mmol / l.
for horses - 130 - 143 mmol / l.
Increased: dehydration, polyuria, sugar and diabetes insipidus, chronic glomerulonephritis, hypoparathyroidism, chronic renal failure, bone tumors, osteolysis, osteodystrophy, hypervitaminosis D, furosemide, tetracycline, steroid hormones.
Lowered: Vitamin D deficiency, osteomalacia, malabsorption, hyperinsulinism, analgesics, anticonvulsants, insulin. False hyponatremia may occur with severe lipemia or hyperproteinemia if the analysis is done with a dilution of the sample.
Calcium total (Ca)
Serum calcium is the sum of calcium ions, incl. associated with proteins (mainly albumin). The level of calcium ions is regulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 2.3 - 3.3 mmol / l;
for cats - 2.0 - 2.7 mmol / l.
for horses - 2.6 - 4.0 mmol / l.
Raised: Hyperparathyroidism, bone tumors, lymphoma, leukemia, sarcoidosis, vitamin D overdose
Lowered: Hypoparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D, chronic renal failure, liver cirrhosis, pancreatitis, osteomalacia, use of anticonvulsants.
PHOSPHORUS (P)
The concentration of inorganic phosphates in blood plasma is determined by the function parathyroid glands, vitamin D activity, gastrointestinal absorption, kidney function, bone metabolism and nutrition.
It is necessary to evaluate the indicator in combination with calcium and alkaline phosphatase.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 1.13 - 3.0 mmol / l;
for cats - 1.1 - 2.3 mmol / l.
for horses - 0.7 - 1.9 mmol / l.
Increased: Kidney failure, massive blood transfusions, hypoparathyroidism, Hypervitaminosis D, bone tumors, lymphoma, leukemia, ketosis in diabetes mellitus, healing bone fractures, use of diuretics, anabolic steroids.
Lowered: Hyperparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D (rickets, osteomalacia), gastrointestinal diseases, malnutrition, severe diarrhea, vomiting, jet intravenous administration glucose, insulin therapy, the use of anticonvulsants.
Iron (Fe)
The concentration of iron in serum is determined by its absorption in the intestine; deposition in the intestine, liver, bone marrow; the degree of decay or loss of hemoglobin; volume of hemoglobin biosynthesis.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 20.0 - 30.0 µmol / l;
for cats - 20.0 - 30.0 µmol / l.
for horses - 13.0 - 23.0 µmol / l.
Increased: hemosiderosis, aplastic and hemolytic anemia, acute (viral) hepatitis, cirrhosis, fatty degeneration of the liver, nephritis, lead poisoning; taking estrogen.
Downgraded: Iron-deficiency anemia, nephrotic syndrome, malignant tumors, infections, postoperative period.
Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium is primarily an intracellular cation (60% is found in bones); it is a necessary cofactor for numerous enzyme systems, especially ATPases. Magnesium affects the neuromuscular response and excitability. The concentration of magnesium in the extracellular fluid is determined by its absorption from the intestine, excretion by the kidneys, and exchange with bones and intracellular fluid.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 0.8 - 1.4 mmol / l;
for cats - 0.9 - 1.6 mmol / l.
for horses - 0.6 - 1.5 mmol / l.
Increased: Dehydration, renal failure, tissue trauma, hypocorticism; taking acetylsalicylate (long-term), triamterene, magnesium salts, progesterone.
Lowered: Magnesium deficiency, tetany, acute pancreatitis, pregnancy, diarrhea, vomiting, the use of diuretics, calcium salts, citrates (for blood transfusion).
Chlorine (Cl)
Chlorine is the most important inorganic anion in the extracellular fluid, important in maintaining normal acid-base balance and normal osmolality. With the loss of chlorides (in the form of HCl or NH4Cl), alkalosis occurs, with ingestion or injection of chlorides, acidosis occurs.
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 96.0 - 118.0 mmol / l;
for cats - 107.0 - 122.0 mmol / l.
for horses - 94.0 - 106.0 mmol / l.
Increased: Hypohydration, acute renal failure, diabetes insipidus, renal tubular acidosis, metabolic acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, adrenal hypofunction, traumatic brain injury, taking corticosteroids, salicylates (intoxication).
Lowered: Hypochloremic alkalosis, after punctures for ascites, prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory acidosis, nephritis, taking laxatives, diuretics, corticosteroids (long-term).
Acidity (pH)
Reference intervals:
for dogs - 7.35 - 7.45;
for cats - 7.35 - 7.45;
for horses - 7.35 - 7.45.
Raised: Alkalosis (respiratory, non-respiratory)
Lowered: Acidosis (respiratory, metabolic)
Normal biochemical parameters of blood.
(after J.Bentinck-Smith and T.W.French, with modifications)
Possible Causes of Deviations from Normal Blood Chemistry in Dogs.
Glucose. Increase (hyperglycemia): diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, administration of glucocorticoids, stress, pancreatic necrosis. Decrease (hypoglycemia): insulinoma, insulin overdose, hypoadrenocorticism.
total protein. Elevation (hyperproteinemia): chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, paraproteinemic hemoblastoses, dehydration. Decrease (hypoproteinemia): nephrotic syndrome, enteritis, pancreatitis, burns, blood loss, starvation, hypovitaminosis, heart failure, edema, malignant neoplasms.
Albumins: see total protein.
Globulins. Increase: acute and chronic inflammatory processes, malignant neoplasms, autoimmune diseases, trauma, myocardial infarction. Decrease: malignant neoplasms, chronic inflammatory processes, allergies.
pH. Not only the pH of the blood matters, but also the alkaline reserve.
An increase in blood pH and an increase in alkaline reserve indicates alkalemia and metabolic alkalosis, for example, due to the loss of chlorides during vomiting and diarrhea. Hyperventilation of the lungs, due to the accelerated removal of CO2, causes respiratory alkalosis.
A decrease in blood pH and a decrease in alkaline reserve indicates acidemia and metabolic acidosis. metabolic acidosis may occur due to diarrhea, renal failure, accumulation ketone bodies(acetonemia), the introduction of certain medications (calcium chloride, methionine, salicylates), the formation of excess lactic acid during heavy and prolonged physical exertion. Respiratory acidosis causes hypoventilation of the lungs, due to an increase in the concentration of CO2 in the blood.
Lipids. Increased: hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, hypoproteinemia as a result of renal failure and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, the introduction of glucocorticoids, liver disease, high lipid diet.
Cholesterol. see lipids.
Creatinine Increase: impaired renal function.
Urea nitrogen. Increase: impaired renal function, impaired urinary excretion, digestion and absorption in the intestine a large number protein, fever, dehydration, acute liver dystrophy. Decrease: cirrhosis of the liver.
Bilirubin direct (passed through the liver). Increase: hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, liver tumors, liver dystrophy.
Bilirubin is indirect (not passed through the liver, unbound). Increase: hemolysis, B12-hypovitaminosis.
Amylase. Increase: pancreatitis, renal failure, hyperadrenocorticism.
Calcium. Increase: hyperparathyroidism, increased intake of calcium in the body, hypoadrenocorticism, thyroid dysfunction, renal failure, tumors, periostitis, overdose of vitamin D and some diuretics.
Decrease: hypoparathyroidism, azotemia, hypoalbuminemia, D-hypovitaminosis, starvation, enteritis, insufficient intake of calcium in the body, insufficient insolation, renal failure, chronic liver disease, pancreatitis, hyperadrenocorticism, administration of Ca-binding drugs (for example, sodium citrate), hyperphosphatemia.
Phosphorus is inorganic. Increase: renal failure, hypoparathyroidism, D-hypovitaminosis. Decrease: insufficient intake of phosphorus with food, hyperparathyroidism, diabetes mellitus.
Magnesium. Increase: renal failure, hypothyroidism, diabetic acidosis. Decrease: chronic enteritis, hyperthyroidism, aldosteronism.
Iron. Decrease: insufficient intake of iron with food or impaired absorption.
Normal urine values in dogs possible reasons deviations from normal indicators
Normal urine values in a dog.
(after J. Bentinck-Smith and T.W. French, with modifications)
Possible reasons for deviations from normal values in a dog.
Colour. Normally, urine is colored yellow. The decrease or disappearance of the yellow color indicates a decrease in the concentration of urine as a result of increased excretion of water (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates an increase in the end<
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Possible reasons for deviations from normal values in a dog.
Quantity: see “Clinical symptoms. Increased thirst and urination (polydipsia and polyuria). Decrease or absence of urination (oliguria and anuria)”.
Colour. Normal urine is yellow in color. The decrease or disappearance of the yellow color indicates a decrease in the concentration of urine as a result of increased excretion of water (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates an increase in the concentration of urine, for example due to dehydration (oliguria).
The green color of the urine is due to the release of bilirubin. When staining urine red, see: “Clinical symptoms. Blood in the urine (hematuria and hemoglobinuria).” Urine also acquires a red color when eating beets and some other foods containing plant pigments. The color of urine changes after taking certain medications (nitrofurans, vitamins).
Transparency. Normal urine is clear. Turbid urine occurs when bacteria, leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells, salts, fat and mucus are excreted. Turbidity that disappears when urine is heated in a test tube may be caused by urates. If the turbidity does not disappear after heating, then a few drops of acetic acid are added to the test tube. The disappearance of turbidity indicates the presence of phosphates. If the haze disappears after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, this may indicate the presence of calcium oxalate.
The turbidity caused by droplets of fat disappears after agitation of the urine with a mixture of alcohol and ether.
Density. Increase: oliguria, glucosuria, proteinuria.
Decrease: polyuria.
Protein. Increase (proteinuria): kidney disease, hemolysis, meat diet, cystitis.
Glucose. Detection: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, kidney disease, glucocorticoid administration, stress.
Ketone bodies (acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacetic acid). Detection (ketonuria): diabetic ketonuria, fever, fasting, low carbohydrate diet.
Creatinine Decrease: renal failure.
Amylase. Increase: acute pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, hepatitis.
Bilirubin. Detection in a significant amount: hemolysis (autoimmune hemolytic anemia, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, etc.), liver disease, violation of the outflow of bile into the intestines, fever, starvation.
Urobilinogen. Detection in a significant amount: liver disease, hemolysis, increased activity of intestinal microflora.
Absence: violation of the outflow of bile into the intestines.
pH. Normally, dog urine has a slightly acidic or neutral reaction. Alkalinity in the urine may indicate a plant-based diet, alkaline supplementation, chronic urinary tract infection, and metabolic and respiratory alkalosis.
The acidity of urine increases with a meat diet, increased protein breakdown, giving acidic drugs, metabolic and respiratory acidosis.
Hemoglobin. Detection (hemoglobinuria): autoimmune hemolytic anemia, sepsis, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, poisoning with hemolytic poisons (phenothiazine, methylene blue, copper and lead preparations), infusion of incompatible blood.
Hemoglobinuria is distinguished from hematuria by microscopy of the urine sediment. With hematuria, a large number of red blood cells are found in the urine sediment. False hemoglobinuria may occur with hemolysis of erythrocytes in weakly concentrated and old urine.
Erythrocytes. Detection in large quantities (hematuria): pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, hemorrhagic diathesis, thrombocytopenia, anticoagulant poisoning (zoocumarin, warfarin), kidney infarction, injuries and tumors of the genitourinary organs, urolithiasis, inflammatory diseases of the genitourinary organs, dioctophimosis.
Leukocytes. Detection in significant numbers: inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract
Cylinders. Detection in a significant amount: damage to the parenchyma of the kidneys, proteinuria (hyaline c.), hematuria (erythrocyte c.), hemoglobinuria (pigment c.), pyelonephritis (leukocytic c.).
A biochemical blood test is necessary to get an idea of the work of the internal organs of the animal's body, to determine the content of trace elements and vitamins in the blood. This is one of the methods of laboratory diagnostics, which is informative for a veterinarian and has a high degree of reliability.
Biochemical analysis involves a laboratory study of the following blood parameters:
Squirrels
- total protein
- Albumins
- Alpha globulins
- beta globulins
- Gamma globulins
Enzymes
- Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT)
- Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
- Amylase
- Phosphatase alkaline
Lipids
- total cholesterol
Carbohydrates
- Glucose
Pigments
- Bilirubin total
low molecular weight nitrogenous substances
Creatinine
Urea nitrogen
Residual nitrogen
Urea
Inorganic substances and vitamins
Calcium
There are certain norms for a biochemical blood test. Deviation from these indicators is a sign of various disorders in the activity of the body.
The results of a biochemical blood test can indicate diseases that are completely independent of each other. Only a professional - an experienced and qualified doctor can correctly assess the state of health of an animal, give a correct, reliable decoding of a biochemical blood test.
total protein
Total protein is an organic polymer made up of amino acids.
The term "total protein" means the total concentration of albumin and globulins in the blood serum. In the body, a common protein performs the following functions: it participates in blood clotting, maintains a constant blood pH, performs a transport function, participates in immune reactions, and many other functions.
Norms of total protein in the blood of cats and dogs: 60.0-80.0 g / l
1.Protein boost may be seen with:
a) acute and chronic infectious diseases,
b) oncological diseases,
c) dehydration of the body.
2. Reduced protein may be with:
a) pancreatitis
b) liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatitis, liver cancer, toxic liver damage)
c) intestinal disease (gastroenterocolitis) dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract
d) acute and chronic bleeding
e) kidney disease, accompanied by a significant loss of protein in the urine (glomerulonephritis, etc.)
f) decrease in protein synthesis in the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis)
g) increased protein loss during blood loss, extensive burns, trauma, tumors, ascites, chronic and acute inflammation
h) oncological disease.
i) during fasting, strong physical exertion.
Albumen
Albumin is the main blood protein produced in the liver of an animal. Albumins are isolated into a separate group of proteins - the so-called protein fractions. Changes in the ratio of individual protein fractions in the blood often give the doctor more significant information than just the total protein.
Albumins 45.0-67.0% in the blood of cats and dogs.
1. Increase albumin in the blood occurs with dehydration, loss of fluid by the body,
2.Downgrade content albumin in the blood:
a) chronic liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver tumors)
b) bowel disease
c) sepsis, infectious diseases, purulent processes
f) malignant tumors
g) heart failure
h) drug overdose
i) is a consequence of starvation, insufficient intake of proteins with food.
Globulin fractions:
Alpha globulins are normal 10.0-12.0%
Beta globulins 8.0-10.0%
Gamma globulins 15.0-17.0%
beta globulins: 1. Fraction increase - with hepatitis, cirrhosis and other liver damage.
Gamma globulins: 1. Fraction increase with cirrhosis, hepatitis, infectious diseases.
2.Faction reduction - 14 days after vaccination, with kidney disease, with immunodeficiency states.
Types of proteinograms:
1. Type of acute inflammatory processes
A pronounced decrease in the content of albumins and an increased content of alpha globulins, an increase in gamma globulins.
It is observed at the initial stage of pneumonia, pleurisy, acute polyarthritis, acute infectious diseases and sepsis.
2. Type of subacute and chronic inflammation
Decreased albumin content, increased alpha and gamma globulins
Observed in the late stage of pneumonia, chronic endocarditis, cholecystitis, urocystitis, pyelonephritis
3. Type of nephrotic symptom complex
Decrease in albumins, increase in alpha and beta globulins, moderate decrease in gamma globulins.
Lipoid and amyloid nephrosis, nephritis, nephrosclerosis, cachexia.
4. Type of malignant neoplasms
A sharp decrease in albumin with a significant increase in all globulin fractions, especially beta globulins.
Primary neoplasms of various localization, metastases of neoplasms.
5. Type of hepatitis
A moderate decrease in albumin, an increase in gamma globulins, a sharp increase in beta globulins.
With hepatitis, the consequences of toxic damage to the liver (improper feeding, improper use of drugs), some forms of polyarthritis, dermatosis, malignant neoplasms of the hematopoietic and lymphoid apparatus.
6. Type of cirrhosis
A significant decrease in albumin with a strong increase in gamma globulins
7. Type of mechanical (subhepatic) jaundice
Decrease in albumins and moderate increase in alpha, beta and gamma albumins.
Abturative jaundice, cancer of the biliary tract and head of the pancreas.
ALT
AlAT (ALT) or alanine aminotransferase is a liver enzyme that is involved in amino acid metabolism. Contains ALT in the liver, kidneys, heart muscle, skeletal muscles.
With the destruction of the cells of these organs, caused by various pathological processes, ALT is released into the blood of the animal's body. Norm of ALT in the blood of cats and dogs: 1.6-7.6 IU
1. Increase ALT - a sign of serious illness:
a) liver toxicity
b) cirrhosis of the liver
c) neoplasm of the liver
d) toxic effect on the liver of drugs (antibiotics, etc.)
e) heart failure
f) pancreatitis
i) skeletal muscle injury and necrosis
2.Decrease in the level of ALT seen with:
a) severe liver diseases - necrosis, cirrhosis (with a decrease in the number of cells synthesizing ALT)
b) vitamin B6 deficiency.
AST
AST (AST) or aspartate aminotransferase is a cellular enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism. AST is found in the tissues of the heart, liver, kidneys, nervous tissue, skeletal muscles and other organs.
The norm of AST in the blood is 1.6-6.7 IU
1. Increase in AST in the blood observed if there is a disease in the body:
a) viral, toxic hepatitis
b) acute pancreatitis
c) liver neoplasms
e) heart failure.
f) skeletal muscle injuries, burns, heat stroke.
2. Lowering the level of AST in the blood due to severe diseases, liver rupture and vitamin B6 deficiency.
Alkaline phosphatase
Alkaline phosphatase is involved in the exchange of phosphoric acid, splitting it from organic compounds and promotes the transport of phosphorus in the body. The highest level of alkaline phosphatase is in bone tissue, intestinal mucosa, in the placenta and mammary gland during lactation.
The rate of alkaline phosphatase in the blood of dogs and cats is 8.0-28.0 IU / l. Alkaline phosphatase affects bone growth, therefore, in growing organisms, its content is higher than in adults.
1. Increased alkaline phosphatase in the blood may be
a) bone disease, including bone tumors (sarcoma), cancer metastases in the bone
b) hyperparathyroidism
c) lymphogranulomatosis with bone lesions
d) osteodystrophy
e) liver diseases (cirrhosis, cancer, infectious hepatitis)
f) tumors of the biliary tract
g) lung infarction, kidney infarction.
h) lack of calcium and phosphates in food, from an overdose of vitamin C and as a result of taking certain medications.
2. Decreased level of alkaline phosphatase
a) with hypothyroidism,
b) bone growth disorders,
c) lack of zinc, magnesium, vitamin B12 or C in food,
d) anemia (anemia).
e) taking medications can also cause a decrease in alkaline phosphatase in the blood.
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic amylase is an enzyme involved in the breakdown of starch and other carbohydrates in the duodenal lumen.
Norms of pancreatic amylase - 35.0-70.0 G \ hour * l
1. Increased amylase - a symptom of the following diseases:
a) acute, chronic pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)
b) pancreatic cyst,
c) tumor in the pancreatic duct
d) acute peritonitis
e) diseases of the biliary tract (cholecystitis)
f) renal insufficiency.
2. Reducing the content of amylase may be with pancreatic insufficiency, acute and chronic hepatitis.
Bilirubin
Bilirubin is a yellow-red pigment, a breakdown product of hemoglobin and some other blood components. Bilirubin is found in bile. Bilirubin analysis shows how the animal's liver works. In the blood serum, bilirubin occurs in the following forms: direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin. Together, these forms form the total blood bilirubin.
Norms of total bilirubin: 0.02-0.4 mg%
1. Increased bilirubin - a symptom of the following disorders in the activity of the body:
a) lack of vitamin B 12
b) liver neoplasms
c) hepatitis
d) primary cirrhosis of the liver
e) toxic, drug poisoning of the liver
Calcium
Calcium (Ca, Calcium) is an inorganic element in the animal body.
The biological role of calcium in the body is great:
Calcium maintains a normal heart rhythm, just like magnesium, calcium contributes to the health of the cardiovascular system in general,
Participates in the metabolism of iron in the body, regulates enzyme activity,
Contributes to the normal functioning of the nervous system, the transmission of nerve impulses,
Phosphorus and calcium in balance make bones strong,
Participates in blood coagulation, regulates the permeability of cell membranes,
Normalizes the work of some endocrine glands,
Participates in muscle contraction.
The rate of calcium in the blood of dogs and cats: 9.5-12.0 mg%
Calcium enters the body of the animal with food, the absorption of calcium occurs in the intestines, the exchange in the bones. Calcium is excreted from the body by the kidneys. The balance of these processes ensures the constancy of the calcium content in the blood.
The excretion and absorption of calcium is under the control of hormones (parathyroid hormone, etc.) and calcitriol - vitamin D3. In order for calcium to be absorbed, there must be enough vitamin D in the body.
1. Too much calcium or hypercalcemia can be caused by the following disorders in the body:
a) increased function of the parathyroid glands (primary hyperparathyroidism)
b) malignant tumors with bone lesions (metastases, myeloma, leukemia)
c) excess vitamin D
d) dehydration
e) acute renal failure.
2. Lack of calcium or hypocalcemia - a symptom of the following diseases:
a) rickets (vitamin D deficiency)
b) osteodystrophy
c) decreased thyroid function
d) chronic renal failure
e) magnesium deficiency
f) pancreatitis
g) obstructive jaundice, liver failure
cachexia.
The lack of calcium can also be associated with the use of medications - anticancer and anticonvulsants.
Calcium deficiency in the body is manifested by muscle cramps, nervousness.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) - necessary for the normal functioning of the central nervous system.
Phosphorus compounds are present in every cell of the body and are involved in almost all physiological chemical reactions. The norm in the body of dogs and cats is 6.0-7.0 mg%.
Phosphorus is a part of nucleic acids that take part in the processes of growth, cell division, storage and use of genetic information,
phosphorus is contained in the bones of the skeleton (about 85% of the total amount of phosphorus in the body), it is necessary for the formation of a normal structure of teeth and gums, ensures the proper functioning of the heart and kidneys,
participates in the processes of accumulation and release of energy in cells,
participates in the transmission of nerve impulses, helps the metabolism of fats and starches.
1. Excess phosphorus in the blood, or hyperphosphatemia, can cause the following processes:
a) destruction of bone tissue (tumors, leukemia)
b) excess vitamin D
c) healing of bone fractures
d) decreased function of the parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism)
e) acute and chronic renal failure
f) osteodystrophy
h) cirrhosis.
Usually, phosphorus is higher than normal due to the intake of anticancer drugs, while phosphate is released into the blood.
2.Lack of phosphorus should be replenished regularly by eating foods containing phosphorus.
A significant decrease in the level of phosphorus in the blood - hypophosphatemia - a symptom of the following diseases:
a) lack of growth hormone
b) vitamin D deficiency (rickets)
c) periodontal disease
d) malabsorption of phosphorus, severe diarrhea, vomiting
e) hypercalcemia
f) increased function of the parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism)
g) hyperinsulinemia (in the treatment of diabetes mellitus).
Glucose
Glucose is the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. More than half of the energy our body uses comes from the oxidation of glucose.
The concentration of glucose in the blood is regulated by the hormone insulin, which is the main hormone of the pancreas. With its deficiency, the level of glucose in the blood rises.
The norm of glucose in animals is 4.2-9.0 mmol / l
1. Increased glucose (hyperglycemia) with:
a) diabetes mellitus
b) endocrine disorders
c) acute and chronic pancreatitis
d) pancreatic tumors
e) chronic diseases of the liver and kidneys
f) cerebral hemorrhage
2. Reduced glucose (hypoglycemia) - a characteristic symptom for:
a) diseases of the pancreas (hyperplasia, adenoma or cancer)
hypothyroidism,
b) liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatitis, cancer),
c) adrenal cancer, stomach cancer,
d) arsenic poisoning or overdose of certain medications.
Glucose analysis will show a decrease or increase in glucose levels after exercise.
Potassium
Potassium is contained in the cells, regulates the water balance in the body and normalizes the rhythm of the heart. Potassium affects the functioning of many cells in the body, especially nerve and muscle cells.
1. Excess potassium in the blood - hyperkalemia is a sign of the following disorders in the body of the animal:
a) cell damage (hemolysis - destruction of blood cells, severe starvation, convulsions, severe injuries, deep burns),
b) dehydration,
d) acidosis,
e) acute renal failure,
f) adrenal insufficiency,
g) increase in the intake of potassium salts.
Usually, potassium is elevated due to the intake of anticancer, anti-inflammatory drugs and some other drugs.
2. Potassium deficiency (hypokalemia) - a symptom of disorders such as:
a) hypoglycemia
b) dropsy
c) chronic fasting
d) prolonged vomiting and diarrhea
e) impaired renal function, acidosis, renal failure
f) an excess of hormones of the adrenal cortex
g) magnesium deficiency.
Urea
Urea is an active substance, the main product of protein breakdown. Urea is produced by the liver from ammonia and is involved in the process of concentrating urine.
In the process of synthesis of urea, ammonia is neutralized - a very toxic substance for the body. Urea is excreted from the body by the kidneys. The rate of urea in the blood of cats and dogs is 30.0-45.0 mg%
1. Increased urea in the blood - a symptom of serious disorders in the body:
a) kidney disease (glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, polycystic kidney disease),
b) heart failure,
c) violation of the outflow of urine (bladder tumor, prostate adenoma, bladder stones),
d) leukemia, malignant tumors,
e) severe bleeding,
f) intestinal obstruction,
g) shock, fever,
An increase in urea occurs after exercise, due to the intake of androgens, glucocorticoids.
2. Urea analysis in the blood will show a decrease in the level of urea with such disorders of the liver as hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatic coma. A decrease in urea in the blood occurs during pregnancy, phosphorus or arsenic poisoning.
Creatinine
Creatinine is the end product of protein metabolism. Creatinine is formed in the liver and then released into the blood, is involved in the energy metabolism of muscle and other tissues. Creatinine is excreted from the body by the kidneys with urine, so creatinine is an important indicator of kidney activity.
1. Increasing creatinine - a symptom of acute and chronic renal failure, hyperthyroidism. The level of creatinine increases after taking certain medications, with dehydration of the body, after mechanical, surgical muscle lesions.
2.Decrease in creatinine in the blood, which occurs during fasting, a decrease in muscle mass, during pregnancy, after taking corticosteroids.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol or cholesterol is an organic compound, the most important component of fat metabolism.
The role of cholesterol in the body:
cholesterol is used to build cell membranes,
in the liver, cholesterol is a precursor of bile,
cholesterol is involved in the synthesis of sex hormones, in the synthesis of vitamin D.
Norms of cholesterol in dogs and cats: 3.5-6.0 mol / l
1. High cholesterol
or hypercholesterolemia leads to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques: cholesterol attaches to the walls of blood vessels, narrowing the lumen inside them. Formed on cholesterol plaques 
blood clots that can break off and enter the bloodstream, causing blockage of blood vessels in various organs and tissues, which can lead to atherosclerosis and other diseases.
Hypercholesterolemia is a symptom of the following diseases:
a) ischemic heart disease,
b) atherosclerosis
c) liver disease (primary cirrhosis)
d) kidney diseases (glomerulonephritis, chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome)
e) chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer
f) diabetes mellitus
g) hypothyroidism
h) obesity
i) somatotropic hormone (GH) deficiency
2.Cholesterol lowering occurs when there is a violation of the absorption of fats, starvation, extensive burns.
Lowering cholesterol can be a symptom of the following diseases:
a) hyperthyroidism,
b) chronic heart failure,
c) megaloblastic anemia,
d) sepsis,
e) acute infectious diseases,
f) end-stage liver cirrhosis, liver cancer,
g) chronic lung diseases.
Biochemical and clinical blood tests will be taken by our specialists from the patient to make and clarify the diagnosis at your home. Analyzes are done on the basis of the Veterinary Academy, the deadline is the next day after 19-00 hours.
The materials posted in this section are of an exclusively educational nature, and in no way can serve as a basis for self-diagnosis and treatment of an animal.
If your animal is ill, you should first contact your veterinarian. Remember - it is impossible to make a correct diagnosis and cure an animal solely with the help of the Internet. Any amateur activity on the part of the owner of the animal can cause irreparable harm to the health of the animal!
Indicators of blood and urine tests in dogs (with explanations)
Blood and urine tests
Normal hematological parameters of dogs
Indicator | Unit | adults | Puppies |
Hemoglobin | |||
red blood cells | |||
Hematocrit | |||
Leukocytes | |||
Neutrophils are stab | |||
Neutrophils are segmented | |||
Eosinophils | |||
Basophils | |||
Lymphocytes | |||
Monocytes | |||
Myelocytes | |||
Reticulocytes | |||
RBC diameter | |||
platelets |
Possible causes of deviations from normal hematological parameters.
Hemoglobin. Increase: some forms of hemoblastosis, in particular erythremia, dehydration. Decrease (anemia): various types of anemia, incl. due to blood loss.
Erythrocytes. Increase: erythremia, heart failure, chronic lung disease, dehydration. Decrease: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic and due to blood loss.
Hematocrit. Increase: erythremia, heart and lung failure, dehydration. Decrease: various types of anemia, incl. hemolytic.
ESR. Increase: inflammatory processes, poisoning, infections, invasions, tumors, hemoblastoses, blood loss, injuries, surgical interventions.
Leukocytes. Increase: inflammatory processes, poisoning, viral infections, invasions, blood loss, trauma, allergic reactions, tumors, myeloid leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia. Decrease: acute and chronic infections (rarely), liver diseases, autoimmune diseases, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis.
Neutrophils. Increase: inflammatory processes, poisoning, shock, blood loss, hemolytic anemia. Decrease: viral infections, exposure to certain antibiotics, toxic substances and cytostatics, radiation sickness, aplastic anemia, agranulocytosis. An increase in the number of stab neutrophils, the appearance of myelocytes: sepsis, malignant tumors, myeloid leukemia.
Eosinophils. Increase: allergic reactions, sensitization, invasions, tumors, hemoblastoses.
Basophils. Increase: hemoblastosis.
Lymphocytes. Increase: infections, neutropenia (relative increase), lymphocytic leukemia.
Monocytes. Increase: chronic infections, tumors, chronic monocytic leukemia.
Myelocytes. Detection: chronic myeloid leukemia, acute and chronic inflammatory processes, sepsis, bleeding, shock.
Reticulocytes. Increase: blood loss, hemolytic anemia Decrease: hypoplastic anemia.
RBC diameter. Increase: B12 and folate deficiency anemia, liver disease. Decrease: iron deficiency and hemolytic anemia.
platelets. Increase: myeloproliferative diseases. Lowering: acute and chronic leukemia, cirrhosis of the liver, aplastic anemia, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenic purpura, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, allergies, intoxication, chronic infections.
Normal urine values
| Indicator | Units | Norm |
| Quantity | ml/kg/day | 24-41 |
| Colour | yellow | |
| Transparency | transparent | |
| Density | g/ml | 1.015-1.050 |
| Protein | mg/l | 0-30 |
| Glucose | 0 | |
| Ketone bodies | 0 | |
| Creatinine | g/l | 1-3 |
| Amylase | units Somogi | 50-150 |
| Bilirubin | traces | |
| Urobilinogen | traces | |
| pH | units | 5.0-7.0 |
| Hemoglobin | 0 | |
| red blood cells | 0-units | |
| Leukocytes | 0-units | |
| cylinders | 0-units |
Possible causes of deviations from normal urine values
Colour. Normal urine is yellow in color. The decrease or disappearance of the yellow color indicates a decrease in the concentration of urine as a result of increased excretion of water (polyuria). An intense yellow color indicates an increase in the concentration of urine, for example due to dehydration (oliguria). The green color of the urine is due to the release of bilirubin. The color of urine changes after taking certain vitamins.
Transparency. Normal urine is clear. Turbid urine occurs when bacteria, leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells, salts, fat and mucus are excreted. Turbidity that disappears when urine is heated in a test tube may be caused by urates. If the turbidity does not disappear after heating, then a few drops of acetic acid are added to the test tube. The disappearance of turbidity indicates the presence of phosphates. If the haze disappears after adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid, this may indicate the presence of calcium oxalate. The turbidity caused by droplets of fat disappears after agitation of the urine with a mixture of alcohol and ether.
Density. Increase: oliguria, glucosuria, proteinuria. Decrease: polyuria.
Protein. Increase: kidney disease, hemolysis, meat diet, cystitis.
Glucose. Detection: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, kidney disease, administration of glucocorticoids, cystitis.
Ketone bodies(acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacetic acid). Finding: diabetic ketonuria, fever, fasting, low carbohydrate diet.
Creatinine Decrease: renal failure.
Amylase. Increase: acute pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, hepatitis.
Bilirubin. Detection in a significant amount: hemolysis (autoimmune hemolytic anemia, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis), liver disease, violation of the outflow of bile into the intestine, fever, starvation.
Urobilinogen. Detection in a significant amount: hemolysis, liver disease, increased activity of intestinal microflora. Absence: violation of the outflow of bile into the intestines.
pH. Normally, dog urine has a slightly acidic or neutral reaction. Alkalinity in the urine may indicate a plant-based diet, alkaline supplementation, chronic urinary tract infection, and metabolic and respiratory alkalosis. The acidity of urine increases with a meat diet, increased protein breakdown, giving acidic drugs, metabolic and respiratory acidosis.
Hemoglobin. Detection (hemoglobinuria): autoimmune hemolytic anemia, sepsis, piroplasmosis, leptospirosis, poisoning with hemolytic poisons (phenothiazine, methylene blue, copper and lead preparations), infusion of incompatible blood. Hemoglobinuria is distinguished from hematuria by microscopy of the urine sediment. With hematuria, a large number of red blood cells are found in the urine sediment. False hemoglobinuria may occur with hemolysis of erythrocytes in weakly concentrated and old urine.
Erythrocytes. Detection in a significant amount (hematuria): pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, hemorrhagic diathesis, thrombocytopenia, anticoagulant poisoning, kidney infarction, inflammatory diseases, injuries and tumors of the genitourinary organs, urolithiasis, dioctophymosis.
Leukocytes. Detection in significant numbers: inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract.
Cylinders. Detection in a significant amount: damage to the kidney parenchyma, proteinuria (hyaline casts), hematuria (erythrocyte casts), hemoglobinuria (pigmented casts), pyelonephritis (leukocyte casts).
Normal biochemical parameters of blood
| Indicator | An object | Units | Values |
| Glucose | serum | g/l | 0.6-1.2 |
| total protein | serum | g/l | 54-78 |
| Albumins | serum | g/l | 23-34 |
| Globulins | serum | g/l | 27-44 |
| pH | blood | units | 7.31-7.42 |
| Lipids | plasma | g/l | 0.47-07.25 |
| Cholesterol | serum | g/l | 1.25-2.50 |
| Creatinine | serum | mg/l | 10-22 |
| Urea nitrogen | serum | mg/l | 100-200 |
| Bilirubin total | serum | mg/l | 0.7-6.1 |
| Bilirubin direct | serum | mg/l | 0-1.4 |
| Bilirubin indirect | serum | mg/l | 0.7-6.1 |
| Amylase | serum | units Somogi | < 800 |
| Calcium | serum | mg/l | 70-116 |
| Phosphorus, inorganic | serum | mg/l | 25-63 |
| Magnesium | serum | mg/l | 18-24 |
| Iron | serum | mg/l | 0.94-1.22 |
Possible causes of deviations from normal biochemical parameters.
Glucose. Increase: diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, administration of glucocorticoids, stress, pancreatic necrosis. Decrease: insulinoma, insulin overdose, hypoadrenocorticism.
total protein. Increase: chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, paraproteinemic hemoblastoses, dehydration. Decrease: nephrotic syndrome, enteritis, pancreatitis, burns, blood loss, starvation, hypovitaminosis, heart failure, edema, malignant neoplasms.
Albumins: see Total protein.
Globulins. Increase: acute and chronic inflammatory processes, malignant neoplasms, autoimmune diseases, trauma, myocardial infarction. Decrease: malignant neoplasms, chronic inflammatory processes, allergies.
pH. Not only the pH of the blood matters, but also the alkaline reserve. An increase in blood pH and an increase in alkaline reserve are indicative of alkalemia and metabolic alkalosis, for example due to loss of chlorides in vomiting and diarrhea. Hyperventilation of the lungs, due to the accelerated excretion of CO2, causes respiratory alkalosis. A decrease in blood pH and a decrease in alkaline reserve indicate acidemia and metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis can occur due to diarrhea, kidney failure, the accumulation of ketone bodies (acetonemia), the administration of certain medications (calcium chloride, methionine, salicylates), the formation of excess lactic acid during heavy and prolonged physical exertion. Respiratory acidosis is caused by hypoventilation of the lungs due to an increase in the concentration of CO2 in the blood.
Lipids. Increased: hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, hypoproteinemia as a result of renal failure and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, the introduction of glucocorticoids, liver disease, high lipid diet.
Cholesterol. See lipids.
Creatinine Increase: impaired renal function.
Urea nitrogen. Increase: impaired renal function, impaired urinary excretion, digestion and absorption of large amounts of protein in the intestine, fever, dehydration, acute liver dystrophy. Decrease: cirrhosis of the liver.
Bilirubin direct(passed through the liver). Increase: hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, liver tumors, liver dystrophy.
Bilirubin indirect(not passed through the liver, unbound). Increase: hemolysis, B12 hypovitaminosis.
Amylase. Increase: pancreatitis, renal failure, hyperadrenocorticism.
Calcium. Increase: hyperparathyroidism, increased intake of calcium in the body, hypoadrenocorticism, thyroid dysfunction, renal failure, tumors, periostitis, overdose of vitamin D and some diuretics. Down: hypoparathyroidism, azotemia
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