Endocrine system composition, functions and treatment. Human Endocrine System: Physiology and Pathophysiology

The endocrine system includes all the glands in the body and the hormones produced by those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation of the nervous system, as well as by chemical receptors in the blood and hormones produced by other glands.
By regulating the functions of the organs in the body, these glands help maintain the homeostasis of the body. Cellular metabolism, reproduction, sexual development, sugar and mineral levels, heart rate and digestion are some… [Read below]

Head and neck
upper body
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[Beginning at the top] … of the many processes regulated by the action of hormones.

Hypothalamus

It is the part of the brain located above and in front of the brainstem, inferior to the thalamus. It performs many different functions in the nervous system, and is also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains special cells called neurosecretory neurons that secrete endocrine hormones: thyrotropin-releasing (TRH), growth hormone-releasing (GRH), growth inhibitory (GRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GH), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) , oxytocin, antidiuretic (ADH).

All releasing and inhibitory hormones affect the function of the anterior pituitary gland. TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone. GRH and GRH regulate the release of growth hormone, GH stimulates the release of growth hormone, GRH inhibits its release. HRH stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, while CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The last two endocrine hormones - oxytocin, as well as antidiuretic - are produced by the hypothalamus, then transferred to the posterior pituitary gland, where they are, and then released.

Pituitary

The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized piece of tissue connected to the lower part of the brain's hypothalamus. Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland, distributing hormones throughout the body. Located in a small depression of the sphenoid bone, the Turkish saddle, the pituitary gland actually consists of 2 completely different structures: the posterior and anterior pituitary glands.

Posterior pituitary.
The posterior pituitary is not actually a glandular tissue, but more of a nervous tissue. The posterior pituitary gland is a small extension of the hypothalamus through which the axons of some of the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus pass. These cells create 2 types of hypothalamic endocrine hormones that are stored and then released by the posterior pituitary: oxytocin, antidiuretic.
Oxytocin activates uterine contractions during childbirth and stimulates the release of milk during breastfeeding.
An antidiuretic (ADH) in the endocrine system prevents body water loss by increasing water reabsorption by the kidneys and decreasing blood flow to the sweat glands.

Adenohypophysis.
The anterior pituitary gland is the true glandular part of the pituitary gland. The function of the anterior pituitary controls the releasing and inhibitory functions of the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary produces 6 important hormones endocrine system: thyrotropic (TSH), responsible for stimulating the thyroid gland; adrenocorticotropic - stimulates the outer part of the adrenal gland - the adrenal cortex to produce its hormones. Follicle-stimulating (FSH) - stimulates the bulb of the gonadal cell to produce gametes in females, sperm in males. Luteinizing (LH) - stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones - estrogens in women and testosterone in men. Human growth hormone (GH) affects many target cells throughout the body, stimulating them to grow, repair, and reproduce. Prolactin (PRL) - has many effects on the body, the main one being that it stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.

pineal gland

It is a small knob-shaped mass of endocrine glandular tissue found only behind the thalamus of the brain. It produces melatonin, which helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle. The activity of the pineal gland is inhibited by stimulation from retinal photoreceptors. This sensitivity to light causes melatonin to be produced only in low light or dark conditions. Increased production of melatonin makes people feel sleepy at night when pineal gland active.

Thyroid

Thyroid- a gland in the shape of a butterfly, its location is at the base of the neck and wrapped around the sides of the trachea. It produces 3 main hormones of the endocrine system: calcitonin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Calcitonin is released into the blood when the calcium level rises above a predetermined value. It serves to reduce the concentration of calcium in the blood, promoting the absorption of calcium in the bones. T3, T4 work together to regulate the body's metabolic rate. Increasing the concentration of T3, T4 increases energy consumption, as well as cellular activity.

parathyroid glands

In the parathyroid glands 4 are small masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce an endocrine hormone, parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in the homeostasis of calcium ions. PTH is released from the parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels are below a set point. PTH stimulates osteoclasts to break down calcium containing matrix bone tissue to release free calcium ions into the blood. PTH also stimulates the kidneys to return filtered calcium ions from the blood back into the bloodstream so that they are retained.

adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly triangular endocrine glands located just above the kidney. They consist of 2 distinct layers, each with its own unique function: the outer adrenal cortex and the inner adrenal medulla.

Adrenal cortex:
produces many cortical endocrine hormones of 3 classes: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens.

Glucocorticoids have many different functions, including the breakdown of proteins and lipids to produce glucose. Glucocorticoids also function in the endocrine system to reduce inflammation and enhance the immune response.

Mineralocorticoids, as their name suggests, are a group of endocrine hormones that help regulate the concentration of mineral ions in the body.

Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low levels in the adrenal cortex to regulate the growth and activity of cells that are receptive to male hormones. In adult males, the amount of androgens produced by the testes is many times greater than that produced by the adrenal cortex, resulting in male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, body hair, and others.

Adrenal medulla:
it produces epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated sympathetic department VNS. Both of these endocrine hormones help increase blood flow to the brain and muscles to improve the response to stress. They also work to increase heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure by decreasing blood flow to organs that are not involved in emergency response.

Pancreas

It is a large gland located in abdominal cavity bottom back closer to the stomach. The pancreas is considered a heterocrine gland because it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissues. The endocrine cells of the pancreas make up only about 1% of the mass of the pancreas and are found in small groups throughout the pancreas called the islets of Langerhans. Within these islets, there are 2 types of cells - alpha and beta - cells. Alpha cells produce glucagon, which is responsible for increasing glucose levels. Glucagon stimulates muscle contractions in liver cells to break down the polysaccharide glycogen and release glucose into the blood. Beta cells produce insulin, which is responsible for lowering blood glucose after meals. Insulin causes glucose to be absorbed from the blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen molecules for storage.

Gonads

Gonads - organs of the endocrine and reproductive system - ovaries in females, testes in males - are responsible for the production of sex hormones in the body. They determine the secondary sexual characteristics of adult females and adult males.

testicles
are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of males that produce the androgen testosterone in males after the onset of puberty. Testosterone affects many parts of the body, including muscles, bones, genitals, and hair follicles. It causes the growth and increase in the strength of bones, muscles, including accelerated growth long bones in adolescence. During puberty, testosterone controls the growth and development of male genitals and body hair, including pubic, chest, and facial hair. In men who have inherited baldness genes, testosterone causes onset androgenetic alopecia commonly known as male pattern baldness.

Ovaries.
The ovaries are a pair of tonsil-shaped endocrine and reproductive glands located in the pelvic cavity of the body, superior to the uterus in women. The ovaries produce the female sex hormones progesterone and estrogens. Progesterone is most active in women during ovulation and pregnancy, where it provides the right conditions in the human body to support the developing fetus. Estrogens are a group of related hormones that function as the primary female reproductive organs. The release of estrogen during puberty causes the development of female sexual characteristics (secondary) - this is the growth of pubic hair, the development of the uterus and mammary glands. Estrogen also causes increased bone growth during adolescence.

thymus

The thymus is a soft, triangular organ of the endocrine system located in the chest. The thymus synthesizes thymosins, which train and develop T-lymphocytes during prenatal development. T-lymphocytes obtained in the thymus protect the body from pathogenic microbes. The thymus is gradually replaced by adipose tissue.

Other hormone-producing organs of the endocrine system
In addition to the endocrine glands, many other non-glandular organs and tissues in the body also produce endocrine hormones.

Heart:
heart muscle is able to produce the important endocrine hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response to high blood pressure levels. PNP works to lower blood pressure by causing vasodilation to provide more room for blood to pass through. ANP also reduces blood volume and pressure, causing water and salt to be excreted from the blood through the kidneys.

Kidneys:
produce the endocrine hormone erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low blood oxygen levels. EPO, once released by the kidneys, travels to the red bone marrow, where it stimulates increased production of red blood cells. The number of red blood cells increases the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, eventually shutting down the production of EPO.

Digestive system

The hormones cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin and gastrin are all produced by the organs of the gastrointestinal tract. CCK, secretin, and gastrin help regulate the secretion of pancreatic juice, bile, and gastric juice in response to the presence of food in the stomach. CCK also plays a key role in feeling full or "full" after a meal.

Adipose tissue:
produces the endocrine hormone leptin, which is involved in controlling appetite and energy expenditure in the body. Leptin is produced at levels relative to the amount of adipose tissue present in the body, which allows the brain to control the state of energy storage in the body. When the body contains sufficient levels of adipose tissue to store energy, the level of leptin in the blood tells the brain that the body is not starving and can function normally. If adipose tissue or leptin levels fall below a certain threshold, the body goes into starvation mode and attempts to conserve energy by increasing hunger and food intake and reducing energy intake. Adipose tissue also produces very low levels of estrogen in men and women. In obese people, a large amount of adipose tissue can lead to abnormal estrogen levels.

Placenta:
In pregnant women, the placenta produces several endocrine hormones that help keep the pregnancy going. Progesterone is produced to relax the uterus, protect the fetus from the mother's immune system, and also prevent premature delivery of the fetus. Chorionic gonadotropin(HCG) helps progesterone by signaling the ovaries to maintain estrogen and progesterone production throughout pregnancy.

Local endocrine hormones:
prostaglandins and leukotrienes are produced by every tissue in the body (with the exception of blood tissue) in response to noxious stimuli. These two hormones of the endocrine system affect cells that are local to the source of damage, leaving the rest of the body free to function normally.

Prostaglandins cause swelling, inflammation, increased sensitivity to pain, and an increase in local organ temperature to help block damaged areas of the body from infection or further damage. They act like the body's natural bandages, contain pathogens, and swell around damaged joints like a natural bandage to limit movement.

Leukotrienes help the body heal after the prostaglandins have taken over by reducing inflammation by helping white blood cells move into the area to clear it of pathogens and damaged tissue.

Endocrine system, interaction with the nervous. Functions

The endocrine system works together with the nervous system to form the body's control system. The nervous system provides very fast and highly targeted control systems for the regulation of specific glands and muscles throughout the body. The endocrine system, on the other hand, is much slower in action, but has very wide distribution, long lasting and powerful effects. Endocrine hormones are distributed by glands through the blood throughout the body, affecting any cell with a receptor for a particular species. Most affect cells in multiple organs or throughout the body, resulting in many varied and powerful responses.

Hormones of the endocrine system. Properties

Once the hormones have been produced by the glands, they are distributed throughout the body through the bloodstream. They travel through the body, through cells, or along the plasma membrane of cells until they encounter a receptor for that particular endocrine hormone. They can only affect target cells that have the appropriate receptors. This property is known as specificity. Specificity explains how each hormone can have specific effects in common parts of the body.

Many hormones produced by the endocrine system are classified as tropic. Tropics are able to cause the release of another hormone in another gland. These provide a control pathway for the production of hormones, as well as a way for glands to control production in remote areas of the body. Many of those produced by the pituitary gland, such as TSH, ACTH, and FSH, are tropic.

Hormonal regulation in the endocrine system

The levels of endocrine hormones in the body can be regulated by several factors. The nervous system can control hormone levels through the action of the hypothalamus and its release and inhibitors. For example, TRH produced by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce TSH. Tropics provide an extra layer of control for hormone release. For example, TSH is tropic, stimulating the thyroid to produce T3 and T4. Nutrition can also control their levels in the body. For example, T3 and T4 require 3 or 4 iodine atoms, respectively, then they will be produced. People who do not have iodine in their diet will not be able to produce enough thyroid hormone to maintain a healthy metabolism in the endocrine system.
Finally, the number of receptors present in cells can be changed by the cells in response to hormones. Cells that are exposed to high levels of hormones for long periods of time can decrease the number of receptors they produce, resulting in decreased cell sensitivity.

Classes of endocrine hormones

They are classified into 2 categories based on their chemical composition and solubility: water-soluble and fat-soluble. Each of these classes has specific mechanisms and functions that dictate how they affect target cells.

water soluble hormones.
Water soluble ones include peptide and amino acid ones such as insulin, epinephrine, growth hormone (somatotropin) and oxytocin. As their name suggests, they are water soluble. Water solubles cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and are therefore dependent on receptor molecules on the cell surface. When a water-soluble endocrine hormone binds to a receptor molecule on the surface of a cell, it causes a reaction within the cell. This reaction can change factors within the cell, such as the permeability of a membrane or the activation of another molecule. The normal reaction is to cause molecules of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) to be synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) present in the cell. cAMP acts as a second messenger inside the cell, where it binds to a second receptor to change the physiological functions of the cell.

Lipid-containing endocrine hormones.
Fat-soluble hormones include steroid hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. Since they are fat soluble, these can pass directly through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and bind directly to receptors within the cell nucleus. Lipids are able to directly control cell function from hormone receptors, often causing certain genes to be transcribed into DNA to produce "messenger RNA (mRNA)", which is used to produce proteins that affect cell growth and function.

It is difficult to overestimate the role of the hormonal regulatory system of the body - it controls the activity of all tissues and organs by activating or inhibiting the production of the corresponding hormones. Violation of the work of at least one of the endocrine glands entails consequences that are dangerous for human life and health. Timely detection of deviations will help to avoid complications that are difficult to treat and lead to a deterioration in the quality of life.

General information about the endocrine system

The humoral regulatory function in the human body is realized through the coordinated work of the endocrine and nervous systems. All tissues contain endocrine cells that produce biologically active substances capable of affecting target cells. Hormonal system There are three types of hormones in humans:

secreted by the pituitary gland;
produced by the endocrine system;
produced by other organs.

A distinctive feature of the substances produced by the endocrine glands is that they enter directly into the blood. The hormonal system of regulation, depending on where the secretion of hormones occurs, is divided into diffuse and glandular:

	Diffuse endocrine system (DES)	glandular endocrine system
Produced hormones	Peptides (glandular - oxytocin, glucagon, vasopressin), biogenic amines	Glandular (steroid, thyroid hormones)
Key Features	Scattered arrangement of secreting cells (apudocytes) in all tissues of the body	The cells are brought together to form an endocrine gland
Mechanism of action	Receiving information from the external and internal environment of the body, they produce the corresponding hormones in response	The regulation of hormonal secretion is modulated by the central nervous system, the produced substances, which are chemical regulators of many processes, immediately enter the blood or lymph

Functions

The health and well-being of a person depends on how well all the organs and tissues of the body work, and how quickly the regulatory mechanism of adaptation to changes in exogenous or endogenous conditions of existence works. Creating an individual microclimate that is optimal for the specific conditions of an individual's life is the main task of the regulatory mechanism, which the endocrine system implements through:

Elements of the endocrine system

The synthesis and release of active biological substances into the systemic circulation is carried out by the organs of the endocrine system. Glandular bodies of internal secretion represent a concentration of endocrine cells and belong to HES. The regulation of the activity of production and release of hormones into the blood occurs through nerve impulses from the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral cellular structures. The endocrine system is represented by the following main elements:

derivatives of epithelial tissues;
glands thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas;
adrenal glands;
gonads;
epiphysis;
thymus.

Thyroid and parathyroid glands

The production of iodothyronines (iodine-containing hormones) is carried out by the thyroid gland, located in the front of the neck. The functional significance of iodine in the body is reduced to the regulation of metabolism and the ability to absorb glucose. Transportation of iodine ions occurs with the help of transport proteins located in the membrane epithelium of thyroid cells.

The follicular structure of the gland is represented by a cluster of oval and round vesicles filled with a protein substance. Epithelial cells (thyrocytes) of the thyroid gland produce thyroid hormones - thyroxine, triiodothyronine. Parafollicular cells located on the basement membrane of thyrocytes produce calcitonin, which ensures the balance of phosphorus and potassium in the body, by enhancing the uptake of calcium and phosphate by young bone tissue cells (osteoblasts).

On the back of the bilobular surface of the thyroid gland, which weighs 20-30 g, there are four parathyroid glands. The nervous structures and the musculoskeletal system are regulated by hormones secreted by the parathyroid glands. If the level of calcium in the body falls below allowable rate, triggered defense mechanism calcium-sensitive receptors that activate the secretion of parathyroid hormone. Osteoclasts (cells that dissolve the mineral component of bones) under the influence of parathyroid hormone begin to release calcium from bone tissue into the blood.

pancreas

Between the spleen and the duodenum at the level of 1-2 lumbar vertebrae is a large secretory organ of dual action - the pancreas. The functions implemented by this organ are the secretion of pancreatic juice (external secretion) and the production of hormones (gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin). Being the main source of digestive enzymes, the pancreas produces such vital important substances, how:

trypsin - an enzyme that breaks down peptides and proteins;
pancreatic lipase - breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and carboxylic acids, its function is to hydrolyze dietary fats;
amylase - glycosyl hydrolase, converts polysaccharides into oligosaccharides.

The pancreas consists of lobules, between which there is an accumulation of secreted enzymes and their subsequent excretion into the duodenum. The interlobular ducts represent the excretory part of the organ, and the islets of Langerhans (an accumulation of endocrine cells without excretory ducts) represent the endocrine part. The function of the pancreatic islets is to maintain carbohydrate metabolism, in violation of which diabetes mellitus develops. Islet cells come in several types, each producing a specific hormone:

cell type	Substance produced	Biological role
	Glucagon	Regulates carbohydrate metabolism, inhibits insulin production
		Controls the hypoglycemic index, lowers blood glucose levels
	Somatostatin	Suppresses the secretion of thyrotropic, somatotropic hormones, insulin, glucagon, gastrin and many others
	Pancreatic polypeptide	Inhibits the secretory activity of the pancreas, accelerates the production of pancreatic juice
		Activation of the mesolimbic cholinergic-dopaminergic system, which causes a feeling of hunger, increased appetite

adrenal glands

Intercellular interaction in the human body is achieved through chemical mediators - catecholamine hormones. The main source of these biologically active substances are the adrenal glands located on the top of both kidneys. Paired endocrine glandular bodies consist of two layers - cortical (external) and cerebral (internal). The regulation of the hormonal activity of the external structure is carried out by the central nervous system, the internal - by the peripheral nervous system.

The cortical layer is a supplier of steroids that regulate metabolic processes. The morphological and functional structure of the adrenal cortex is represented by three zones in which the following hormones are synthesized:

	Substances produced	Biological role
Glomerular	Aldosterone	Increasing the hydrophilicity of tissues, regulating the content of sodium and potassium ions, maintaining water-salt metabolism
	Corticosterone	Corticosteroid of low activity, maintenance of electrolytic balance
	Desoxycorticosterone	Increase in strength, endurance muscle fibers
Beam	cortisol	Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism, preservation of internal energy reserves by creating glycogen stores in the liver
Beam	Cortisone	Stimulation of the synthesis of carbohydrates from proteins, suppression of the activity of the organs of the immune mechanism
Mesh	Androgens	Increase synthesis, prevent protein breakdown, reduce glucose levels, develop secondary male sexual characteristics, increase muscle mass

The inner layer of the adrenal glands is innervated by preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system. The cells of the medulla produce adrenaline, norepinephrine and peptides. The main functions of hormones produced by the inner layer of the adrenal glands are as follows:

adrenaline - mobilization of the internal forces of the body in case of danger (increased contractions of the heart muscle, increased pressure), catalyzing the process of converting glycogen into glucose by increasing the activity of glycolytic enzymes;
norepinephrine - regulation blood pressure when changing the position of the body, it synergizes with the action of adrenaline, supporting all the processes launched by it;
substance P (pain substance) - activation of the synthesis of inflammatory mediators and their release, transmission of pain impulses to the central nervous system, stimulation of the production of digestive enzymes;
vasoactive peptide - transmission of electrochemical impulses between neurons, stimulation of blood flow in the intestinal walls, inhibition of hydrochloric acid production;
somatostatin - suppression of the activity of serotonin, insulin, glucagon, gastrin.

thymus

The maturation and training of the immune response of cells that destroy pathogenic antigens (T-lymphocytes) occurs in the thymus gland (thymus). This organ is located in upper region the sternum at the level of the 4th costal cartilage and consists of two closely adjacent lobes. The function of cloning and preparation of T cells is achieved through the production of cytokines (lymphokines) and thymopoietins:

	Cytokines	Thymopoietins
Produced hormones	Interferon gamma, interleukins, tumor necrosis factors, colony stimulating factors (granulocytic, granulocytomacrophage, macrophage), oncostatin M,	Thymosin, thymulin, thymopoietin, thymic humoral factor
biological purpose	Regulation of intercellular and intersystem interaction, control of cell growth, determination of functional activity and cell survival	Selection, control of growth and distribution of T-lymphocytes

epiphysis

One of the most poorly understood glands of the human body is the pineal gland or pineal gland. According to its anatomical affiliation, the pineal gland belongs to the DES, and morphological features indicate that it is outside the physiological barrier separating the circulatory and central nervous systems. The epiphysis is fed by two arteries - the superior cerebellar and the posterior cerebral.

The activity of producing hormones by the pineal gland decreases as they grow older - in children this organ is significantly larger than in adults. Biologically active substances produced by the gland - melatonin, dimethyltryptamine, adrenoglomeruotropin, serotonin - affect the immune system. The mechanism of action of hormones produced by the pineal gland determines the functions of the pineal gland, of which the following are currently known:

synchronization of cyclic changes in the intensity of biological processes associated with the change of dark and daylight hours and temperature environment;
maintaining natural biorhythms (the alternation of sleep with wakefulness is achieved by blocking the synthesis of melanin from serotonin under the action of bright light);
inhibition of the synthesis of somatotropin (growth hormone);
blocking of cell division of neoplasms;
control of puberty and the production of sex hormones.

Gonads

The endocrine glands that produce sex hormones are called gonads, which include the testicles or testes (male gonads) and the ovaries (female gonads). The endocrine activity of the sex glands is manifested in the production of androgens and estrogens, the secretion of which is controlled by the hypothalamus. The appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in humans occurs after the maturation of sex hormones. The main functions of male and female gonads are:

	female gonads	male gonads
		testicles
Produced hormones	Estradiol, progesterone, relaxin	Testosterone
Functional purpose	Control of the cycle of menstruation, ensuring the ability to become pregnant, the formation of skeletal muscles and secondary sexual characteristics according to the female type, increasing blood coagulability and levels pain threshold during childbirth	Secretion of sperm components, ensuring the vital activity of spermatozoa, ensuring sexual behavior

General information about diseases of the endocrine system

The endocrine glands provide the vital activity of the whole organism, therefore, any violation of their functioning can lead to the development pathological processes posing a danger to human life. A disorder in the work of one or several glands at once can occur due to:

genetic abnormalities;
received injuries internal organs;
the beginning of the tumor process;
lesions of the central nervous system;
immunological disorders (destruction of glandular tissue by its own cells);
development of tissue resistance to hormones;
production of defective biologically active substances that are not perceived by organs;
reactions to the hormonal drugs taken.

Diseases of the endocrine system are studied and classified by the science of endocrinology. Depending on the area of occurrence of deviations and the method of their manifestation (hypofunction, hyperfunction or dysfunction), diseases are divided into the following groups:

Affected element (gland)
Hypotolamo-pituitary	Acromegaly, prolactinoma, hyperprolactinemia, diabetes (diabetes insipidus)
Thyroid	Hypo- or hyperthyroidism, autoimmune thyroiditis, endemic, nodular, diffuse-toxic goiter, cancer
pancreas	Diabetes mellitus, VIPoma syndrome
adrenal glands	Tumors, adrenal insufficiency
	Menstrual irregularities, ovarian dysfunction

Symptoms of endocrine disorders

Diseases caused by dysfunctional disorders of the endocrine glands are diagnosed on the basis of characteristic symptoms. The primary diagnosis is necessarily confirmed by laboratory tests, on the basis of which the content of hormones in the blood is determined. Violation of the endocrine system manifests itself in signs that are distinguished by their diversity, which makes it difficult to establish the cause of complaints only on the basis of a patient survey. The main symptoms that should be the reason for contacting an endocrinologist are:

abrupt change body weight (weight loss or weight gain) without significant changes in diet;
emotional imbalance, characterized by frequent mood swings for no apparent reason;
increased frequency of urge to urinate (increased amount of urine output);
the appearance of a persistent feeling of thirst;
anomalies of physical or mental development in children, acceleration or delay of puberty, growth;
distortion of the proportions of the face and figure;
increased work of sweat glands;
chronic fatigue, weakness, drowsiness;
amenorrhea;
changes in hair growth (excessive hair growth or alopecia);
violation of intellectual abilities (memory impairment, decreased concentration of attention);
decreased libido.

Treatment of the endocrine system

To eliminate the manifestations of impaired activity of the endocrine glands, it is necessary to identify the cause of the deviations. With diagnosed neoplasms, which resulted in diseases of the endocrine system, in most cases surgery is indicated. If comorbidities are not identified, trial dietary nutrition may be prescribed to regulate hormone production.

If the cause-forming factors of the violations were a decrease or excessive production of glandular secretion, drug treatment is used, which involves taking the following groups of drugs:

steroid hormones;
general tonic (affect the immune system);
anti-inflammatory drugs;
antibiotic agents;
radioactive iodine;
vitamin-containing complexes;
homeopathic remedies.

Disease prevention

To minimize the risk of abnormalities in the work of the intrasecretory glands, the recommendations of endocrinologists should be followed. The main rules for the prevention of endocrine disorders are:

timely access to a doctor if disturbing signs are detected;
limiting exposure aggressive factors external environment that have a negative effect on the body (ultraviolet radiation, chemical substances);
adherence to the principles balanced nutrition;
giving up bad habits;
treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases in early stage;
control of negative emotions;
moderate physical activity;
regular preventive diagnostics of hormone levels (sugar levels - annually, thyroid hormones - 1 time in 5 years).

Video

The collection of endocrine glands (endocrine glands) that provide the production of hormones is called the endocrine system of the body.

From the Greek language, the term "hormones" (hormaine) is translated as to induce, set in motion. Hormones are biologically active substances produced by the endocrine glands and special cells found in tissues located in the salivary glands, stomach, heart, liver, kidneys and other organs. Hormones enter the bloodstream and affect the cells of target organs located either directly at the site of their formation (local hormones) or at some distance.

The main function of the endocrine glands is the production of hormones that are distributed throughout the body. From this follow additional functions endocrine glands through the production of hormones:

Participation in exchange processes;
Maintaining the internal environment of the body;
Regulation of the development and growth of the body.

The structure of the endocrine glands

The organs of the endocrine system include:

Hypothalamus;
Thyroid;
Pituitary;
parathyroid glands;
Ovaries and testicles;
Islets of the pancreas.

During the period of bearing a child, the placenta, in addition to its other functions, is also an endocrine gland.

The hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate the function of the pituitary gland or, conversely, suppress it.

The pituitary gland itself is called the main endocrine gland. It produces hormones that affect other endocrine glands and coordinates their activity. Also, some hormones produced by the pituitary gland have a direct effect on the biochemical processes in the body. The rate of hormone production by the pituitary gland is arranged according to the feedback principle. The level of other hormones in the blood gives the pituitary gland a signal that it should slow down or, conversely, accelerate the production of hormones.

However, not all endocrine glands controlled by the pituitary gland. Some of them indirectly or directly react to the content of certain substances in the blood. So, for example, the cells of the pancreas, which produces insulin, respond to the concentration in the blood fatty acids and glucose. The parathyroid glands respond to phosphate and calcium concentrations, while the adrenal medulla responds to direct stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system.

Hormone-like substances and hormones are produced by various organs, including those that are not part of the structure of the endocrine glands. So, some organs produce hormone-like substances that act only in the immediate vicinity of their release and do not release their secret into the blood. These substances include some hormones produced by the brain, which affect only the nervous system or two organs. There are other hormones that act on the entire body as a whole. For example, the pituitary gland produces thyroid-stimulating hormone, which acts exclusively on the thyroid gland. In turn, the thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that affect the functioning of the entire body.

The pancreas produces insulin, which affects the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates in the body.

Diseases of the endocrine glands

As a rule, diseases of the endocrine system occur as a result of metabolic disorders. The reasons for such disorders can be very different, but mainly the metabolism is disturbed as a result of a lack of vital minerals and organisms in the body.

The proper functioning of all organs depends on the endocrine (or hormonal, as it is sometimes called) system. Hormones produced by the endocrine glands, entering the blood, act as catalysts for various chemical processes in the body, that is, the rate of most chemical reactions depends on their action. Also, with the help of hormones, the work of most organs of our body is regulated.

In violation of the functions of the endocrine glands, the natural balance of metabolic processes is disturbed, which leads to the emergence of various diseases. Often, endocrine pathologies occur as a result of intoxication of the body, injuries or diseases of other organs and systems that disrupt the functioning of the body.

Diseases of the endocrine glands include diseases such as diabetes mellitus, erectile dysfunction, obesity, thyroid disease. Also, in violation of the proper functioning of the endocrine system, cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, and joints can occur. Therefore, the proper functioning of the endocrine system is the first step to health and longevity.

An important preventive measure in the fight against diseases of the endocrine glands is the prevention of poisoning (toxic and chemical substances, food products, excretion products of pathogenic intestinal flora, etc.). It is necessary to cleanse the body of free radicals in a timely manner, chemical compounds, heavy metals. And, of course, at the first signs of the disease, it is necessary to undergo a comprehensive examination, because the sooner treatment is started, the greater the chances of success.

glands- special human organs that produce and secrete specific substances (secrets) and participate in various physiological functions.

Exocrine glands(salivary, sweat, liver, milk, etc.) are equipped with excretory ducts through which secretions are secreted into the body cavity, various bodies or to the external environment.

Endocrine glands(pituitary, pineal, parathyroid, thyroid, adrenal glands) are devoid of ducts and secrete their secrets (hormones) directly into the blood washing them, which spreads them throughout the body.

Hormones- biologically active substances produced by the endocrine glands and having a targeted effect on other organs. They are involved in the regulation of all vital processes - growth, development, reproduction and metabolism.

Based on their chemical nature, they are protein hormones(insulin, prolactin) amino acid derivatives(adrenaline, thyroxine) and steroid hormones(sex hormones, corticosteroids). Hormones have a specific action: each hormone affects a certain type of metabolic processes, the activity of certain organs or tissues.

The endocrine glands are in close functional interdependence, making up an integral endocrine system , which carries out hormonal regulation of all basic life processes. The endocrine system functions under the control of the nervous system, the link between them is the hypothalamus.

Glands of mixed secretion(pancreas, genital) simultaneously perform the functions of external and internal secretion.

Violations of the work of the endocrine glands are manifested either in an increase in secretion (hyperfunction), or in a decrease (hypofunction), or in the absence of secretion (dysfunction). This can lead to a variety of specific endocrine diseases. The causes of malfunction of the glands are their diseases or dysregulation of the nervous system, especially the hypothalamus.

Endocrine glands

Endocrine system- humoral system of regulation of body functions through hormones.

Pituitary- central endocrine gland. Its removal results in death. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) is associated with the hypothalamus and produces tropic hormones that stimulate the activity of other endocrine glands: thyroid - thyrotropic, genital - gonadotropic, adrenal - adrenocorticotropic. Growth hormone affects the growth of a young organism: with excessive production of this hormone, a person grows too quickly and can reach a height of 2 m or more (gigantism); its insufficient amount causes growth retardation (dwarfism). Its excess in an adult leads to the growth of the flat bones of the facial part of the skull, arms and legs (acromegaly). In the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis), two hormones are formed: antidiuretic (or vasopressin), which regulates water-salt metabolism (increases water reabsorption in the nephron tubules, reduces the excretion of water in the urine), and oxytocin, which causes contraction of the pregnant uterus during childbirth and stimulates the secretion of milk during lactation.

epiphysis(pineal gland) - a small gland that is part of the diencephalon. In the dark, it produces the hormone melatonin, which affects the function of the gonads and puberty.

Thyroid- a large gland located in front of the larynx. The gland is able to extract iodine from the blood washing it, which is part of its hormones - thyroxine, triiodothyronine, etc. Thyroid hormones affect metabolism, the processes of growth and differentiation of tissues, the functioning of the nervous system, and regeneration. Deficiency of thyroxine causes serious disease- myxedema, which is characterized by swelling, hair loss, lethargy. With hormone deficiency childhood cretinism develops (delay of physical, mental and sexual development). With an excess of thyroid hormones, it develops Graves' disease(the excitability of the nervous system sharply increases, metabolic processes intensify, despite the large amount of food consumed, the person loses weight). In the absence of iodine in water and food, endemic goiter develops - hypertrophy (growth) of the thyroid gland. To prevent this, kitchen salt is iodized.

parathyroid glands- four small glands located on the thyroid gland or immersed in it. The parathyroid hormone produced by them regulates calcium metabolism in the body and maintains its level in the blood plasma (increases its absorption in the kidneys and intestines, releases it from the bones). At the same time, it also affects the exchange of phosphorus in the body (increases its excretion in the urine). Insufficiency of this hormone leads to increased neuromuscular excitability, the appearance of convulsions. Its excess leads to the destruction of bone tissue, the tendency to stone formation in the kidneys also increases, the electrical activity of the heart is disturbed, and ulcers appear in the gastrointestinal tract.

adrenal glands- paired glands located at the top of each kidney. They consist of two layers - outer (cortical) and inner (cerebral), which are independent (different in origin, structure and functions) endocrine glands. In the cortical layer, hormones are formed that are involved in the regulation of water-salt, carbohydrate and protein metabolism (corticosteroids). In the medulla - adrenaline and norepinephrine, which ensure the mobilization of the body in stressful situations. Adrenaline increases systolic pressure, accelerates heart rate, increases blood flow to the heart, liver, skeletal muscle, and brain, promotes the conversion of liver glycogen to glucose, and increases blood sugar levels.

The endocrine glands include thymus in which the hormones thymosin and thymopoietin are synthesized.

Glands of mixed secretion

Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes, which is involved in digestion, and two hormones that regulate carbohydrate and fat metabolism - insulin and glucagon. Insulin lowers blood glucose by delaying the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and increasing its utilization by muscle and other cells. Glucagon causes the breakdown of glycogen in tissues. Insufficiency of insulin secretion leads to an increase in blood glucose levels, disruption of lipid and protein metabolism, and the development of diabetes mellitus. Insulin is used to treat diabetes, which is obtained from the pancreas of cattle.

gonads(testicles and ovaries) form sex cells and sex hormones (female - estrogens and male - androgens). Both types of hormones are present in the blood of any person, so sexual characteristics are determined by their quantitative ratio. In embryos, sex hormones control the development of the genital organs, and during puberty ensure the development of secondary sexual characteristics: a deep voice, a strong skeleton, developed body muscles, facial hair growth - in men; deposition of fat in certain parts of the body, development of mammary glands, high voice - in women. Sex hormones enable fertilization, the development of the embryo, normal flow pregnancy and childbirth. Female sex hormones support menstrual cycle.

Regulation of the endocrine system

occupies a special place in the endocrine system hypothalamic-pituitary system- a neuroendocrine complex that regulates the body's homeostasis. The hypothalamus acts on the pituitary gland with the help of neurosecretions, which are released from the processes of neurons of the hypothalamus and through the blood vessels enter the anterior pituitary gland. These hormones stimulate or inhibit the production of tropic pituitary hormones, which, in turn, regulate the function of the peripheral endocrine glands (thyroid, adrenal, and gonads).

Table “Endocrine system. glands"

Gland	Hormones	Function
Pituitary: a) anterior lobe	Growth hormone (somatotropin)	Regulates growth (proportional development of muscles and bones), stimulates the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats
	Thyrotropin	Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones
	Corticogropin (ACTH)	Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of adrenal hormones
	Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)	Controls follicle growth, egg maturation
	Prolactin	Breast growth and milk secretion
	luteinizing hormone (LH)	Controls development corpus luteum and their synthesis of progesterone
Pituitary: b) average share	Melanotropin	Stimulates the synthesis of melanin pigment in the skin
Pituitary: c) posterior lobe	Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)	Enhances reabsorption (reabsorption) of water in the tubules of the kidneys
Pituitary: c) posterior lobe	Oxytocin	Stimulates labor activity (strengthens uterine muscle contractions)
epiphysis	Melatonin Serotonin	Regulate body biorhythms, puberty
Thyroid	Thyroxine Triiodothyronine	Regulate the processes of growth, development, the intensity of all types of metabolism
Parathyroid	Parathyrin (parathormone)	Regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism
Adrenals: a) cortical layer	Corticosteroids, mineralocorticoids	Support on high level performance, promote rapid recovery, regulate water-salt metabolism in the body
Adrenals: b) medulla	Adrenaline, norepinephrine	Accelerate blood flow, increase the frequency and strength of heart contractions, dilate the vessels of the heart and brain, bronchi; increase the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and the output of glucose into the blood, increase muscle contraction, reduce the degree of fatigue
Pancreas	insulin, glucagon	Lowers blood glucose levels. Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen
gonads	Female hormones - estrogens, male hormones- androgens	The development of secondary sexual characteristics, the reproductive capabilities of the body, ensure fertilization, the development of the embryo and childbirth; affect the sexual cycle, mental processes, etc.

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This diagram shows the influence of the proper functioning of the human endocrine system on the functions of various organs.

Kidneys and adrenal glands

Pancreas

testicles

Foot cabinet

The endocrine system plays a very important role in the human body. It is responsible for the growth and development of mental abilities, controls the functioning of organs. The endocrine glands produce various chemicals called hormones. Hormones have a huge impact on mental and physical development, growth, changes in the structure of the body and its functions, determine sex differences.

Above the basement membrane, which limits each vesicle, it is located l epithelium. It mainly consists of a single cubic cell layer that delimits as a normal vesicle cavity coating. In this cavity collects the product of secretion or at least, as in the case of the thyroid gland, which is the most typical example of a closed vesicular gland, one of the products of secretion. The colloid that fills the thyroid vesicles is not actually secreted specifically active, namely, thyroxine, but a supply of material which, according to some, is from the same thyroid cells used to process thyroxine.

The main organs of the endocrine system are:

thyroid and thymus glands;
epiphysis and pituitary gland;
adrenal glands; pancreas;
testicles in men and ovaries in women.

Age features of the endocrine system

The hormonal system in adults and children does not work the same way. The formation of glands and their functioning begins even during prenatal development. The endocrine system is responsible for the growth of the embryo and fetus. In the process of body formation, connections are formed between the glands. After the birth of a child, they become stronger.

Solid epithelial bodies are those endocrine glands in which. no cavities formed and designed to collect the secretion product They consist of accumulations of secreting cells; it is a support above the basement membrane that separates them from the interstitial connective tissue and are sometimes arranged in the form of cords, filled, sometimes nodules or islands. The secretion passes directly from the cells in the blood vessels or in the lymphatic vessels. Accumulative nodular accumulations are collected from human pituitary cells, cells bone marrow adrenal capsule, etc.

From birth to puberty highest value have a thyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal glands. In puberty, the role of sex hormones increases. In the period from 10-12 to 15-17 years old, many glands are activated. In the future, their work will stabilize. With the right lifestyle and the absence of diseases, there are no significant disruptions in the endocrine system. The only exception is sex hormones.

Often there are also closed vesicles in the endocrine glands or cell networks, that is, in the so-called hard epithelial corpuscles. These would be normal organ constituents in the thyroid gland, but in other glands would instead appear only under certain circumstances, when the secretion, instead of passing directly to the blood vessels or lymph, first accumulates in the intercellular vests, which become the center of the formation of true vesicles Sometimes endocrine glands are mixed glands, meaning they consist of morphologically and physiologically various parts, so that the supramrenal capsules in which the bone marrow substance and the cortical substance have morphological significance and have a very different function.

Pituitary

The greatest importance in the process of human development is assigned to the pituitary gland. It is responsible for the functioning of the thyroid gland, adrenal glands and other peripheral parts of the system.

The main function of the pituitary gland is to control body growth. It is performed due to the production of growth hormone (somatotropic). The gland significantly affects the functions and role of the endocrine system, therefore, if it does not work properly, the production of hormones by the thyroid gland, adrenal glands is carried out incorrectly.

Often there are cases of mutual penetration between the tissues of the endocrine and other tissues. characteristic feature is the pheochrome or cocophine system, which has the function of internal secretion and is embedded in the sympathetic nervous system, with which it also shares a common embryonic stem. And also in the male and female gonads endocrine tissue in the form of cell clusters or scattered cells, it is confused with the germinal part and as a whole forms the interstitial gland of the testicle and ovary, respectively.

There are dual functional glands that at one time function as exocrine glands and as endocrine glands, because their cells provide "one and all" other forms of secretion; So, for example, the external secretion of liver cells is bile and the internal secretion of glycogen. He then generally acknowledges that other exocrine glands work simultaneously as endocrine glands, such as the breast. The possibility has been entertained by some that in some cases there is an exocrine and endocrine function which especially supports Lagess for the pancreatic islets of Langerhans.

epiphysis

The pineal gland is the gland that functions most actively until the youngest school age(7 years). The gland produces hormones that inhibit sexual development. By 3-7 years, the activity of the pineal gland decreases. During puberty, the number of hormones produced is significantly reduced.

Thyroid

Another important gland in the human body is the thyroid gland. It begins to develop one of the first in the endocrine system. The greatest activity of this part of the endocrine system is observed at 5-7 and 13-14 years.

The endocrine island will only be morphologically and functionally during a transitional period after which exocrine function will resume and therefore aggravated alveoli and groups of the esophagus may transform into endocrine islets. This theory is of little value.

At present, we tend to expand the capacity for internal secretion of a large part of the constituents of the body. We have seen that some endocrine formulations do not have the value of glandular epithelium, but rather are derivatives of connective tissue. Interstitial gland of testis and ovary. However, if the derivation of these formations was indeed coherent, the demonstration of this fact would already represent a significant step towards the generalization of endocrine function beyond the glandular epithelial tissue.

parathyroid glands

The parathyroid glands begin to form at the 2nd month of pregnancy (5-6 weeks). Most active parathyroid gland observed in the first 2 years of life. Then, up to 7 years, it is maintained at a fairly high level.

Thymus

The thymus gland or thymus is most active in puberty (13-15 years). Its absolute weight begins to increase from the moment of birth, and the relative one decreases, from the moment the growth of iron ceases to function. It is also important during the development of immune bodies. To this day, it has not been determined whether thymus produce some hormone. Correct dimensions of this gland can change in all children, even peers. During exhaustion and disease, the mass of the thymus rapidly decreases. With increased demands on the body and during increased secretion of the sugar hormone of the adrenal cortex, the volume of the gland decreases.

Fat adipose fat is also replenished, since this, in turn, can be reabsorbed, is considered an element of internal secretion. Kajala, would also be neurological cells and specifically a protoplasmic-type astrocyte. It is certain that something in the products of metabolism of any cellular element terminates in the circulatory system, and it is not necessary to assume that each cellular element has its own role in maintaining the chemical balance of the circulating fluids in the body and that a change in the metabolism of any cell group can, if not compensated, cause a disturbance in this balance, but, on the other hand, it is not necessary to go through an exaggeration of the desire to generalize all elements of the body the concept of real internal secretion, nor should it happen in error, too often, to be considered an argument for attributing to such an element such a function of demonstrating electrically colored granules, as if the presence of granules In the cell, it is always an indicator of a secretive function.

adrenal glands

Adrenals. The formation of glands occurs up to 25-30 years. The greatest activity and growth of the adrenal glands are observed at 1-3 years, as well as during sexual development. Thanks to the hormones that iron produces, a person can control stress. They also affect the process of cell renewal, regulate metabolism, sexual and other functions.

Previously empirically known effects on development and nutrition from the eradication of certain organs, changes that occur during puberty and menopause, resulting in pregnancy, etc.: then results were found that made extracts of certain organs on the whole body.

But the study of painful frames associated with the anatomical changes of certain organs or their eradication by disease, created a true body of doctrine, supplemented by experimental pathology and organ therapy through the beneficial action of juices or organic extracts administered to organisms that are in a functional defect or even transplanted Organs or fragments. normal organs. Various functional changes correspond to certain clinical scales related to the pathological state of each individual organ: within very narrow limits it is possible that some glands can "set functional compensatory events": most often correlations between different endocrine glands They cause more complex syndromes to reflect on that the disease of an organ affects the function of another, causing or suppressing it.

Pancreas

Pancreas. The development of the pancreas occurs before 12 years of age. This gland, together with the sex glands, belongs to the mixed glands, which are organs of both external and internal secretion. In the pancreas, hormones are produced in the so-called islets of Langerhans.

Female and male gonads

The female and male gonads are formed during fetal development. However, after the birth of a child, their activity is restrained until the age of 10-12, that is, until the onset of the pubertal crisis.

Most endocrinopathies take place among replacement diseases, and many pathological abnormalities of replacement are the result of damage to the endocrine tissues and the autonomic nervous system with which they are in an intimate functional relationship: even the supposed detoxifying effect "increases the number of conciliators" with the hormonal.

Rudinger, interaction of glands with innervation. Endocrine cells have morphological features and features of glandular cells. For the most part, these are true glandular epithelial cells; but also those endocrine cells for which it is reliably known that their connecting output, as in the case of the so-called interstitial gland of the testis and ovary, luteal cells, etc. have an epithelial appearance. protoplasm is abundant, the nucleus can show form and constitutional changes in relation to function, as is also known for external secretion cells.

The male sex glands are the testicles. From the age of 12-13, the gland begins to work more actively under the influence of GnRH. In boys, growth accelerates, secondary sexual characteristics appear. At the age of 15, spermatogenesis is activated. By the age of 16-17, the process of development of the male gonads is completed, and they begin to work in the same way as in an adult.

Some admit that these different types cells do not match different stages one function, but to the secretion of one active principle. In almost all cellular elements that are considered endocrine, it is seen that the cytological character, which is sometimes erroneous, however, is very characteristic of the secretory cell as a whole: the presence of granules, which are considered to be granules of secretion or presetto. Sometimes these endocellular granules are chemically detectable, as in the case of granulocytes or lipoid cortical cell droplets of supratranal capsules or testicular and ovarian interstitial cells; sometimes also have the character of specificity, such as cells of the chromaffin granule of the adrenal bone marrow, and so on.

The female sex glands are the ovaries. The development of the sex glands occurs in 3 stages. From birth to 6-7 years there is a neutral stage.

During this period, the hypothalamus is formed according to the female type. From the age of 8 until the onset of adolescence lasts puberty. From the first menstruation, puberty is observed. At this stage, there is active growth, the development of secondary sexual characteristics, the formation of the menstrual cycle.

But "identification" between these granules and the active substance of the secretion or the relationship between them and this is not always easy to demonstrate. In most cases, internal secretion is merocrine. The secretory element, i.e. performed by the function, is in the Reactivation state after a rest period. But there are also cases of secretion of oloks, which are characterized by the fact that the elements are destroyed by hand, as the secretory work is done. This phenomenon is widely used in the thymus, but it also appears in part in the thyroid and pituitary glands.

The endocrine system in children is more active than in adults. The main changes in the glands occur at an early age, younger and older school age.

Functions of the endocrine system

takes part in the humoral (chemical) regulation of body functions and coordinates the activity of all organs and systems.
ensures the preservation of the body's homeostasis under changing environmental conditions.
together with the nervous and immune systems regulates the growth, development of the body, its sexual differentiation and reproductive function;
takes part in the processes of formation, use and conservation of energy.

In conjunction with the nervous system, hormones are involved in providing emotional reactions to human mental activity.

The distribution of blood vessels in the endocrine organs and their relationship with cellular elements are of great importance, since blood vessels are the main, if not the only, way of receiving and distributing secretion products in the body. Endocrine organs are richly vascularized; the capillary network around the vesicles of closed glandular glands or around the cords and cellular networks of hard epithelial corpuscles is very intense; Cell cords and nests are also intercepted by blood capillaries; So often give individual cells enclosed in capillary networks; Direct contact between secretory and capillary cells.

Endocrine diseases

Endocrine diseases are a class of diseases that result from a disorder of one or more endocrine glands. Endocrine diseases are based on hyperfunction, hypofunction or dysfunction of the endocrine glands.

Why You Need a Pediatric Endocrinologist

The specificity of a pediatric endocrinologist is to monitor correct formation growing organism. This direction has its subtleties, and therefore it was apart.

Often the vessels related to the endocrine cells are sinusoidal in nature. Lymphatic vessels also richly represented; But their connection with the glandular elements is less clearly demonstrated. However, some of them prefer to use the lymphatic route as a way to capture the secretions of certain glands. Innervation is also striking. Vasomotor nerves form around thick, empty vases.

But the contingent of fibers also matters, which is in direct contact with the secretory cells, wrapping them in a network of their terminal extensions. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are brain circuit, through which it is possible to realize the biosynthesis of various hormones that regulate a number of biological events. The hypothalamus-pituitary axis connects the nervous system with the endocrine system, ensuring the implementation of regulatory processes of secretory hormones.

parathyroid glands

Parathyroid glands. Responsible for the distribution of calcium in the body. It is essential for bone formation, muscle contraction, heart function, and transmission of nerve impulses. Both deficiency and excess lead to serious consequences. You need to see a doctor if you experience:

muscle cramps;
Tingling in the limbs or spasms;
Fracture of a bone from a slight fall;
Poor condition of teeth, hair loss, stratification of nails;
Frequent urination;
Weakness and fatigue.

Prolonged lack of hormones in children leads to a delay in the development of both physical and mental. The child does not remember well what he has learned, is irritable, prone to apathy, and complains.

The hypothalamus is a brain structure in which information comes from different anatomical regions of the body. The hypothalamus is located in the central region of the brain, inside the two hemispheres and is the abdominal part of the diencephaloid. In more detail, the hypothalamus is located on the third cerebral sides of the ventricle and is bounded posterior to the mammillary bodies, anterior to the optic nerves, superior to the hypothalamic sulcus, and inferior to the pituitary gland, with which it is in close contact as anatomically.

It consists of gray cells grouped into nuclei, divided into three groups: anterior, middle and posterior. The hypothalamus controls and controls the autonomic nervous system. In fact, it is able to modify visceral motility, the sleepwalking cycle, hydrosaline balance, body temperature, appetite, expression of emotional states, and the endocrine system.

Thyroid

The thyroid gland produces hormones that are responsible for the metabolism in the cells of the body. Violation of its work affects all organ systems. You need to see a doctor if:

There are clear signs of obesity or severe thinness;
Weight gain even with a small amount of food consumed (and vice versa);
The child refuses to wear clothes with a high neck, complaining of a feeling of pressure;
Puffiness of the eyelids, bulging eyes;
Frequent coughing and swelling in the goiter;
Hyperactivity is replaced by severe fatigue;
Drowsiness, weakness.

adrenal glands

The adrenal glands produce three types of hormones. The former are responsible for the water-salt balance in the body, the latter for the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates, and the third for the formation and functioning of muscles. It is necessary to consult a doctor if the child has:

Cravings for salty foods;
Poor appetite is accompanied by weight loss;
Frequent nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain;
low blood pressure;
The pulse is below normal;
Complaints of dizziness, pre-fainting;

The baby's skin is golden brown, especially in areas that are almost always white (the creases of the elbows, knee joint, on the scrotum and penis, around the nipples).

Pancreas

The pancreas is an important organ responsible mainly for the digestive processes. It also regulates carbohydrate metabolism with the help of insulin. Diseases of this organ are called pancreatitis and diabetes mellitus. Signs of acute inflammation of the pancreas and reasons for calling an ambulance:

Sharp pain in the abdomen (sometimes herpes zoster);
The attack lasts several hours;
Vomit;
In a sitting position and leaning forward, the pain subsides.

It is necessary to recognize the onset of diabetes and visit a doctor when a child has:

constant thirst;
Often wants to eat, but at the same time for a short time he lost a lot of weight;
There was urinary incontinence during sleep;
The child is often irritated and began to study poorly;
Skin lesions appeared (boils, barley, severe diaper rash), often occurring and not passing for a long time.

Thymus

The thymus gland is a very important organ of the immune system that protects the body from infections. various etiologies. If the child is often sick, visit a pediatric endocrinologist, perhaps the reason is an increase in the thymus gland. The doctor will prescribe supportive therapy and the frequency of diseases can be reduced.

Testicles and ovaries

The testicles and ovaries are glands that produce sex hormones according to the sex of the child. They are responsible for the formation of the genital organs and the appearance of secondary signs. You need to visit a doctor if you experience:

Lack of testicles (even one) in the scrotum at any age;
The appearance of secondary sexual characteristics earlier than 8 years and their absence by 13 years;
After a year, the menstrual cycle has not improved;
Hair growth in girls on the face, chest, on the midline of the abdomen and their absence in boys;
The boy's mammary glands swell, his voice does not change;
An abundance of acne.

Hypothalamic-pituitary system

The hypothalamic-pituitary system regulates the secretion of all glands in the body, so a malfunction in its work can have any of the above symptoms. But in addition to this, the pituitary gland produces a hormone responsible for growth. You need to see a doctor if:

The height of the child is significantly lower or higher than that of peers;
Late change of milk teeth;
Children under 4 years old do not grow more than 5 cm, after 4 years - more than 3 cm per year;
In children older than 9 years, there is a sharp jump in growth, a further increase is accompanied by pain in the bones and joints.

With low growth, you need to carefully monitor its dynamics, and visit an endocrinologist if all relatives are above average height. Hormone deficiency at an early age leads to dwarfism, excess - to gigantism.

The work of the endocrine glands is very closely related, and the appearance of pathologies in one leads to the malfunctioning of the other or several. Therefore, it is important to recognize diseases associated with the endocrine system in time, especially in children. Improper functioning of the glands will have an impact on the formation of the body, which can have irreversible consequences if treated belatedly. In the absence of symptoms in children, there is no need to visit an endocrinologist.

Quality prevention

To maintain the health of the endocrine glands, and even better, regularly take preventive measures, first of all, you need to pay attention to daily diet. The lack of vitamin and mineral components directly affects the well-being and functioning of all body systems.

Importance of iodine

The thyroid gland is the storage center for important element like iodine. Preventive measures include sufficient iodine content in the body. Because in many settlements there is a clear lack of this element, you need to use it as a preventive measure for disruption of the endocrine glands.

For quite a long time, iodine deficiency has been replenished with iodized salt. Today it is successfully added to bread, milk, which helps eliminate iodine deficiency. It can also be special medications with iodine or food supplements. Many products contain large amounts beneficial substance, among them seaweed and various seafood, tomatoes, spinach, kiwi, persimmon, dried fruits. By using healthy food little by little every day, iodine reserves are gradually replenished.

Activity and physical activity

In order for the body to receive a minimum load during the day, you need only 15 minutes to spend in motion. Regular morning work-out gives a person a boost of vivacity and positive emotions. If it is not possible to do sports or fitness in the gym, you can organize hiking from work to home. Walking in the fresh air will help strengthen the immune system and prevent many diseases.

Nutrition for disease prevention

Too fatty, spicy foods and pastries have not yet made anyone healthier, so it is worth reducing their consumption to a minimum. All dishes that increase the level of cholesterol in human blood should be excluded for the prevention of diseases of the endocrine and other systems. It is better to cook dishes for a couple or bake, you need to give up smoked and salty dishes, semi-finished products. Dangerous for health is the excessive consumption of chips, sauces, fast food, sweet carbonated drinks. It is better to replace them with various nuts and berries, for example, gooseberries, which contain essential manganese, cobalt and other elements. For the prevention of many diseases, it is better to add cereals, more fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, poultry to your daily diet. Also, do not forget about the drinking regime and drink about two liters of clean water, not counting juices and other liquids.

The human endocrine system controls important features. Even a slight malfunction in its work can lead to serious diseases. With improper production of hormones, absolutely all organs suffer. With untimely therapy, serious consequences are possible, which cannot always be eliminated.

Basic concepts, functions

The organs of the endocrine system synthesize hormones, which, getting into the blood, penetrate into all cells of the body, regulate their work. Some glands are organs, but there are also those that are represented by endocrine cells. They form a dispersed system.

The endocrine glands are covered with a capsule, from which trabeculae extend deep into the organ. The capillaries in the glands form extremely dense networks. This is a necessary condition for enriching the blood with hormones.

Levels of organization of the organs of the system:

Lower. It includes peripheral and effector glands.
Higher. The activity of these organs is regulated by tropic hormones of the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamic neurohormones control the release of tropic hormones. They occupy the highest place in the system.

The glands of the endocrine system secrete active substances, they do not have excretory ducts. Subdivided into:

endocrine: adrenal glands, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland, epiphysis;
mixed: thymus and pancreas, placenta, ovaries, testes, paraganglia.

Ovaries, testicles, placenta regulate sexual function. Special cells located in the wall respiratory tract, genitourinary system, stomach, control the activity of the organ in which they are located. Chromaffin organs are an accumulation of cells that have a genetic connection with the nodes of the autonomic nervous system. Thanks to the hypothalamus, the joint functioning of the endocrine and nervous systems is possible. It also regulates the activity of the endocrine glands.

The functions of the endocrine system are carried out thanks to hormones. They carry out the weakening or stimulation of the cells. That is why the glands, together with the nervous system, carry out humoral regulation, allowing the body to function as an integral system. They also carry out the processes of energy metabolism, control reproductive, mental, emotional activity, development and growth of the body.

Hormones of the endocrine system

biological substances increased activity that carry out local and general regulation of the body's activity - hormones. They work both at a great distance from the place of their synthesis, and at a close one, exerting a special effect on nearby cells. Most hormones are synthesized as prohormones. Once in the Golgi complex, they become active.

Chemical structure of hormones:

protein;
steroid;
derivatives of amino acids.

Hormones by physiological action:

Tropic (launchers), affect the endocrine glands. These include hormones from the pituitary and hypothalamus.
Artists: Insulin. They act on tissues and cell receptors.

Characteristic features of hormones:

selectivity of action;
a clear direction of action;
no species specificity;
biological activity is extremely high.

Disruption of the endocrine system can be manifested by hyperfunction or hypofunction. The glands are closely related to each other, despite the fact that they have different locations and sources of development. Therefore, the failure of one of them leads to the malfunction of others.

Pathological conditions

Hormones have a significant effect on the body. They control physiological, psycho-emotional and physical parameters.

Diseases of the endocrine system are accompanied by:

improper production of hormones;
failure of their absorption and transportation;
production of an abnormal hormone;
formation of body resistance to active substances.

Any failure in an established system leads to pathologies. Diseases of the endocrine system:

Hypothyroidism. Caused by low hormone levels. A person's metabolic processes slow down, he constantly feels tired.
Diabetes. Formed with a lack of insulin. This causes poor absorption of nutrients. In this case, glucose is not completely broken down, which contributes to the development of hyperglycemia.
Goiter. accompanied by dysplasia. Its development leads to insufficient intake of iodine in the body.
thyrotoxicosis. Caused by overproduction of hormones.
Autoimmune thyroiditis. When the immune system malfunctions, pathological changes in tissues occur. The immune system begins to fight thyroid cells, mistaking them for foreign objects.
Hypoparathyroidism. Accompanied by convulsions and seizures.
Hyperparathyroidism. Some trace elements in this state are poorly absorbed. The disease is caused by increased production of parahormone.
Gigantism. Pathology is characterized by a high synthesis of growth hormone. The disease causes proportional, but excessive growth of the body. When the condition occurs in adulthood, only certain parts of the body undergo growth.

Symptoms of pathologies

Some signs of emerging deviations are attributed to external factors. If the disease is not detected in time, it will progress.

Endocrine system, symptoms of the disease:

constant thirst;
frequent urge to empty the bladder;
constant desire to sleep;
increased excitability;
excessive sweating;
increase in temperature;
liquid stool;
decrease in memorization processes;
headaches due to high blood pressure;
tachycardia, pain in the heart;
a sharp change in body weight;
muscle weakness;
fatigue.

Therapy of pathologies

Treatment of the endocrine system today is the use of hormonal medications. These funds are necessary to eliminate the symptoms. If the pathology requires removal of the thyroid gland, then the drugs will need to be used throughout life.

For preventive purposes, specialists prescribe strengthening and anti-inflammatory drugs. Radioactive iodine is also widely used. Surgery is still the most effective method of therapy, but doctors try to use it only in extreme cases: if the tumor can cause irreparable harm to the endocrine system.

Depending on where the pathology is localized, the specialist selects a diet for the patient. Diet food can only be used if there is no likelihood of developing diabetes. The trial menu consists of products:

fish, meat;
cottage cheese;
dairy products;
Rye bread;
vegetable oil and butter;
vegetables, in addition to legumes and potatoes;
fruits, excluding grapes and bananas.

Such a diet is necessary for overweight people. It is low in calories and low in fat. This contributes to weight loss.

The endocrine system plays a vital role in the body. Maintaining its normal functioning is the primary task of everyone. If a pathology is suspected, it is necessary to seek the advice of specialists. Self-medication is not allowed. It will only lead to the development of the disease.